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 +====== C= Hacking #2 ======
  
 +<code>
 +     CCCCCC       HH    HH    AAAA    CCCCC KK  KK IIIIII NN   NN  GGGG
 +    CC   ====     HH    HH  AA    AA CC     KK KK    II   NNN  NN GG
 +    CC   ===      HH    HH  AA    AA CC     KKKK     II   NN NNNN GG
 +    CC            HHHHHHHH  AA    AA CC     KKKK     II   NN NNNN GG GGG
 +    CC   ===      HH    HH  AAAAAAAA CC     KK KK    II   NN  NNN GG   GG
 +    CC   ====     HH    HH  AA    AA CC     KK KK    II   NN   NN GG   GG
 +     CCCCCC       HH    HH  AA    AA  CCCCC KK  KK IIIIII NN   NN  GGGGG
 +
 +                    Volume 1 - Issue 2 - April 22, 1992
 +==============================================================================
 +
 +Editor's Notes:
 +by Craig Taylor (duck@pembvax1.pembroke.edu)
 +
 +   Eeegh! - When I first started this I never realized how much work it'd be.
 +I'm glad of the reception it's gotten from the Commodore community at large. I'd
 +like to thank each of the author's in this issue and last for their work they've
 +put into it as well as their time. 
 +
 +  Please note that all files, documentation etcetera associated with C= Hacking
 +and whatnot contained within are also now available at tybalt.caltech.edu via
 +anonymous ftp under the directory /pub/rknop/hacking.mag.  Any updates to files
 +contained within or corrections will be posted there as well as mentioned
 +here.  Currently it has the correct 1st issue and (soon to be) 2nd issue.  Also
 +Robert Knop's file bmover.sfx is there for the Banking Geos article in this
 +issue.
 +
 +  It seems as if we're averaging about 2 months for each issue and hopefully 
 +we'll keep that rate during the summer but due to an internship (I'll hopefully
 +get) I may not have net access during the summer.  In that case it'll be delayed
 +until after I get back to school in the fall.
 +
 +  Also, if you've got any ideas for articles or have written a program that is
 +unique that you'd be interested in documenting and p'haps letting other people
 +see some of the tricks of the trade then please send any queries to 
 +duck@pembvax1.pembroke.edu.  
 +
 +****************** WARNINGS, UPDATES, BUG REPORTS, ETC... *********************
 +
 +  Please note that in the last issue when the undocumented opcodes were 
 +discussed that they are _VERY NON-STANDARD_.  And any future accelerator boards
 +for the C=128 or C=64, in all likelehood, _will not work_. Zip's board [when are
 +they ever gonna finish it?] for the C=128 will be based on a similair processor
 +to the 8502 and is practically guarenteed not to work with the undocumented 
 +op-codes.  If you plan to release any ML programs for general use PLEASE be 
 +aware that they may be in-compatible with future systems.
 +
 +============================================================================
 +
 +Note: Permission is granted to re-distribute this "net-magazine", in whole,
 +  freely for non-profit use.  However, please contact individual authors for 
 +  permission to publish or re-distribute articles seperately. 
 +
 +  *** AUTHORS LISTED BELOW RETAIN ALL RIGHTS TO THEIR ARTICLES ***
 +
 +============================================================================
 +
 +  In this edition we've got the following articles:
 +
 +Learning ML - Part 2
 +
 +  Yes, the infamous learning machine langauge tutors by Craig Taylor 
 +(duck@pembvax1.pembroke.edu).  In this session we examine indexed addressing
 +and it's usefulness in printing strings of characters.
 +
 +8563 : An In-Depth Look
 +
 +  This article documents and details the 8563 in-depth.  It covers all 
 +available registers, documents their functions and suggested methods of getting
 +certain effects.  Also covers how to read and write to 8563 registers as well
 +as read the 16k or 64k of memory that contains the VDC char-set, screen memory
 +etc.  Written by Craig Taylor (duck@pembvax1.pembroke.edu).
 +
 +The Poor Man's Way to Getting Files from MS-Dos Diskettes
 +
 +  Now there's a way to transfer files of any length from MS-Dos diskettes using
 +a public domain program that will only read files of 43k or less and a IBM
 +program to split the files up.  There are better ways, but if you don't want
 +to pay for Big-Blue Reader this is one method to go.  Written by Mark Lawrence
 +(9152427D@Levels.UniSa.Edu.Au).
 +
 +Banking on Geos
 +
 +  GEOS 128, being an extended and expanded version of GEOS 64, provides a 
 +contiguous block of application space in a single RAM bank.  The "standard"
 +programming documentation makes few references to the use of other banks in 
 +GEOS.  This article describes accessing other RAM banks (including RAM banks 2
 +and 3 for 256K expanded 128's) under GEOS128, using both the GEOS Kernal
 +routines and more direct methods.  By Robert Knop (rknop@tybalt.caltech.edu).
 +
 +Dynamic Memory Allocation
 +
 +  Written by Craig Bruce (csbruce@ccnga.uwaterloo.ca) this article examines
 +how to implement and use dynamically allocated memory that will allow your
 +programs to better utilize all of the available memory on your C=128, including
 +expansion memory.  These routines are extracted from the Zed-128 program which
 +is a text editor that can edit 600KByte files on a 512K expanded 128.
 +
 +=============================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== Beginning ML #2 ======
 +<code>
 +by Craig Taylor (duck@pembvax1.pembroke.edu)
 +
 +  Last time we introduced the definition of what exactly Machine Language / 
 +Assembly Language is along with an example of clearing the screen in Machine
 +Language.
 +
 +  Now, in this issue let's print my name (and later your name). Looking at the
 +code from last time the following assembly source jumps to mind:
 +
 +------------ 
 +print_1.asm:
 +
 +          lda #147         ; clr/screen code
 +          jsr $ffd2        ; print
 +          lda #'C'         ; code for ascii "C"
 +          jsr $ffd2        ; print
 +          lda #'r'    
 +          jsr $ffd2
 +          lda #'a'
 +          jsr $ffd2
 +          lda #'i'
 +          jsr $ffd2
 +          lda #'g'
 +          jsr $ffd2
 +          lda #32          ; code for space 
 +          jsr $ffd2
 +          lda #'T'         ; print my last name....
 +          jsr $ffd2
 +             .
 +                          (ad naseum...)    
 +                        
 +          rts
 +----------
 +
 +  Now, for short strings like "HI!" that might be fine but if your name is 
 +something like "Seymour Johnson the third" it can get a little bit ridiculous
 +in terms of the amount of memory and the amount of typing (eegh! - typing!) 
 +involved. There's an easier way.
 +  
 +  It's called indexed addressing. What is this you say? Let's first take a 
 +look at the above program using indexed addressing and then explain it.
 +
 +------------ 
 +print_2.asm
 +
 +          ldy #$00
 +   loop   lda string,y
 +          jsr $ffd2
 +          iny
 +          cpy #numchars
 +          bne loop
 +          rts
 +
 + string   .byte 147
 +          .ascii "Craig Taylor"
 +
 + numchars = *-string
 +
 +------------
 +
 +  Hmm, looks a little bit confusing 'eh?
 +
 +  What we're doing is using the register y to act as a pointer to grab the 
 +y'th character in what is at memory location STRING. If y is 0 then we'll get
 +string+0 which happens to be a 147.
 +
 +  The .byte and .ascii directives are not real instructions the computer
 +understands. What happens is that your assembler sees that you want data
 +put at those locations so it convert 147 and "Craig Taylor" to numbers
 +and puts them at the proper locations, relieving you the burden of doing it.
 +
 +   The numchars = *-string looks confusing at first... obviously, numchars
 +stands for the number of characters we need to print out but how is it being
 +figured?  Most assemblers keep the current location in memory it's assembling
 +to in something called a program counter of PC.  Most assemblers also will let
 +you have the value at assembly time by referencing it using the "*" symbol.
 +"string" is already a symbol that has been set an address in memory and after
 +assembling the .byte and .ascii instruction "*" will be equal to the next 
 +address that the assembler would put any instructions at, had we had any.
 +Now, *-string basically is saying to the compiler, look, take the current 
 +program counter (where it's assembling to) and subtract it from where the 
 +symbol string starts at (which it just assembled a while back). This should
 +be then, our number of characters we have.
 +
 +WALK-THROUGH:
 +
 +  Register Y is initially set to zero in the first instruction, as we want to
 +begin with the first character. The first character is at string+0, not 
 +string+1. This may seem a little bit odd at first, but try thinking of it this
 +way:
 +
 +     Take, for example, 3 diskettes. Put them in a row and call the one on the
 +     left "string" (or some other name). Then point at "string+1", "string+2"..
 +     Notice there's no "string+3" even tho' there's 3 diskettes?  This may 
 +     seem a little bit strange at first, but after thinking about it a while
 +     you'll begin to understand. In machine / assembly language, you typically
 +     count starting from zero, in the real world, typically from one.
 +
 +  The lda string,y instruction is telling the computer to reference string as 
 +if it was an array, get the byte at location string + y, or for you basic
 +programmers thinking of string as an array of bytes (with no bounds checking)
 +string[y]. Thus, the accumulator is equal to the yth byte starting from
 +the location string is defined to be.
 +
 +  We then call the routine Commodore so graciously provided for us that prints
 +out the contents of the accumulator. Now, some routines, as we'll see in other
 +editions, are not so nice and may change the value of the accumulator, the 
 +x and y registers. However, Commodore was extra nice and the routine at $ffd2 is
 +guaranteed not to change any of the registers.
 + 
 +  The routine then "iny" What is this? It "INcrements the Y register". INX 
 +will "INcrement the X register" The X and Y register can not have any math
 +performed on them other than increment and decrement operations (ie: adding
 +one and subtracting one).   The only register that allows addition or
 +subtraction is the accumulator. However, in this case we just want y to point
 +to the next character, the next byte so "INY" serves us fine.
 +  
 +  We then "ComPare Y" register to the number of characters in the string. Notice
 +the # sign. If we hadn't have had that there, it would've tried to look at 
 +whatever memory location numchars was defined for. Numchars was set up to hold
 +the number of characters in the string, not be a pointer for a memory location.
 +
 +  Now that we've compared it, we "Branch if the last comparison was Not Equal"
 +back to where loop is at (in this case, where we load a with character again).
 +
 +  If it was equal we fall through to the RTS where we return from our little
 +program.
 +
 +  Basically, we've got something like the following flowchart:
 +                  _______
 +                 / START \
 +                 \_______/
 +                    |
 +                   \|/
 +                +-----------------+
 +                | Set Index (Y)   |
 +                | first character | 
 +                +-----------------+
 +                    |
 +                   \|/
 +                +-------------------+
 +                | Get the character | /
 +                | pointed to by     |<------------------+
 +                | the index(Y)      | \                 |
 +                +-------------------+                   |
 +                    |                                   |
 +                   \|/                                  |
 +                +-------------+                         |
 +                | Print it    |                         |
 +                +-------------+                         |
 +                    |                                   |
 +                   \|/                                  |
 +                +------------------------+              |
 +                | Increment the Index(Y) |              |
 +                +------------------------+              |
 +                    |                                   |
 +                   \|/                                  |
 +                    /\                                  |
 +                   /= \                                 |
 +                  /# of\                                |
 +                 /chars?                              |
 +                /to print\___no,not =_____------------->+
 +                \???     /
 +                      /
 +                  \    /
 +                    /
 +                    \/
 +                     |
 +                    \|/
 +                    _____
 +                   / END \
 +                   \_____/
 +
 +  Indexed addressing is used *very* often in assembly language.  Try playing 
 +with the second program and experiment with it until you understand fully what
 +is going on.  Next time we'll look at how to access some of the diskette 
 +routines and to display a file on disk.
 +
 +===============================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== An In-Depth Look at the 8563 Video Chip on the C= 128 ======
 +<code>
 +by Craig Taylor (duck@pembvax1.pembroke.edu)
 +
 +  Due to the article in the last issue by Craig Bruce (csbruce@ccnga.uwaterloo.
 +ca) and some letters from people asking about how the 8563 Video Chip works and
 +more technical information this article will attempt to present as much detail
 +as possible on the 8563 chip & it's various capibilities.
 +
 +  
 +                            ---------------------  
 +                            ! Hardware Aspects: !
 +                            ---------------------
 +
 +  The following is a physical layout of the 8563 and the available pin outs:
 +
 +              +------------------+
 +         42 o_|DD7  VDD    CS DA7|_o 33   DA0-DA7 - Address Bus for Ram
 +         41 o_|DD6            DA6|_o 32   DD0-DD7 - Data Bus for Ram
 +         40 o_|DD5            DA5|_o 31   D0 - D7 - Data Bus 8563 / Cpu
 +         39 o_|DD4            DA4|_o 30   CS /CS  - Chip Selection Pin
 +         38 o_|DD3            DA3|_o 29   /RS     - Register Select
 +         36 o_|DD2            DA2|_o 28   R/    - Data Direction for Data Bus
 +         35 o_|DD1            DA1|_o 27   INIT    - Initialize internal latches
 +         34 o_|DD0            DA0|_o 26   DISPEN  - (Unused) Display Enable
 +              |                  |        RES     - (Unused) Reset all scan cnts
 +              |                  |        TST     - (Unused) Test purposes only
 +         10 o_|D7            /CAS|_o 48   DR/   - Local Dram Read/Write
 +         11 o_|D6            /RAS|_o 47   /RAS    - Row Address Strobe
 +         13 o_|D5            DR/W|_o 21   /CAS    - Column Address Strobe
 +         14 o_|D4                |        DCLK    - Video Dot Clock
 +         15 o_|D3               R|_o 46   CCLK    - (Unused) Character Clock 
 +         16 o_|D2               G|_o 45   LP2     - Input for Light Pen
 +         17 o_|D1               B|_o 44   HSYNC   - Horizontal Sync
 +         18 o_|D0               I|_o 43   R,G,B,I - Pixel Data Outputs
 +              |                  |        
 +              |                  |
 +          8 o_|/RS               |
 +          7 o_|/CS               |
 +          9 o_|R/          VSYN|_o 20
 +         23 o_|/RES          HSYN|_o 3
 +              |                  |
 +              |              CCLK|_o 1
 +         25 o_|/LP2        DISPEN|_o 19 
 +              |                  |
 +              |               TST|_o 24
 +          2 o_|/DCLK  VS5    INIT|_o 22
 +              +------------------+ 
 +                       !12
 +                       o
 +
 +
 +   Taken from Pg. 596-8 C=128 Programmer's Reference Manual Publ. Feb 1986 
 +   Bantem Books
 +
 +
 +
 +                         +-----------------------------+
 +                         | How Commodore Hooked It Up! |
 +                         +-----------------------------+
 +
 +  Now, the 8563 is hooked up to the computer via the following method:
 +
 +     +---------------------+                          
 +                                     +--------+   +-------+
 +     |Computer Memory      |             | 8563     |16k or |   
 +        (RAM)            |                    | % | 64k     
 +                         |___$d600_____|da0-7   | % |VDC RAM|   
 +                                            | % |       |
 +                         |___$d601_____|dr0-7   | % |(Screen|
 +                           ( /rs)    |    d0-7|___| Mem)  |
 +     +---------------------+             +--------+   +-------+  
 +
 +  Confusing 'eh? (The %'s represent control signals that also are used).. What 
 +basically happens is that every time the computer wants to access the 8563 to 
 +program or change one of it's numerous registers it has to store the register
 +number to $d600, then loop until the 7th bit of $d600 changes to a 1.  Once
 +this is done, you can then read or write a value to/from $d601.
 +
 +  Commodore also employed the MMU (Memory Management Unit) to manipulate pages 
 +of memory and thus, the 8563 only shows up in the I/O page (usually referenced
 +as Bank 15 or a value of $00 in the MMU Register at $ff00) or in pages that the 
 +I/O section of memory is enabled.
 +
 +  The register at $d600 in the I/O space of the C=128 is laid out as follows:
 +
 +  Bit Position:
 +      7              5                          1      0
 +      Status  LightPen VBlank  -----Unused---- ------Version #--------
 +
 +  When a value is placed in $d600 instead of putting the value in Status,
 +LightPen bits etc, the value reflects which register # is requested. Bit 7 of
 +this register (Status) will then return a binary 1 when $d601 reflects the 
 +actual value of the register just poked to $d600. (See the ML routines for
 +storing and reading values to/from registers at the end of this article). When
 +a value is first place in this register, $d600 bit 7 is equal to a zero.
 +
 +  Bit 6, is used to indicate when new values have been latched into the 
 +lightpen registers (16-17). Bit 5, VBlank refers to when the 8563 is in the
 +period known as "Vertical Blanking Period" Usually, however this bit is 
 +seldom referred to as updating the 8563 is usally too slow to make use of this
 +for any special effects.  
 +
 +  Bits 0-2 return a version # of which %000 and %001 are the known versions out.
 +Early 128's will contain the value of $0 while later 128's will contain the 
 +value of $1.  Note that there are slight differences between the 8563's, in that
 +register 25 (horizontal smooth scoll register) requires different settings. 
 +
 +  The register at $d601 returns the value of register # that has been written
 +into $d601 (when bit 7 of $d600 = %1). Note that storing a value here will also
 +do a write into the register # selected. (Refer to the ML routines for storing
 +and reading values to/from registers at the end of this article for an example).
 +
 +
 +                              ------------------------
 +                              | Register Definitions |
 +                              ------------------------
 +
 +Reg#        6    5    4    3    2    1    0     Description              Notes
 +------- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ----   ------------------------ -----
 +  0     HzT7 HzT6 HzT5 HzT4 HzT3 HzT2 HzT1 HzT0   Horizontal Total          ^1  
 +  1     HzD7 HzD6 HzD5 HzD4 HzD3 HzD2 HzD1 HzD0   Horizontal Displayed      ^1
 +  2     HzS7 HzS6 HzS5 HzS4 HzS3 HzS2 HzS2 HzS0   Horizontal Sync Position  ^1
 +  3     VSW3 VSW2 VSW1 VSW0 HSW3 HSW2 HSW1 HSW0   Vert/Horiz. Sync Width    ^2
 +  4     VeT7 VeT6 VeT5 VeT4 VeT3 VeT2 VeT1 VeT0   Vertical Total            ^3
 +  5     .... .... .... VeA4 VeA3 VeA2 VeA1 VeA0   Vertical Total Fine Adju  ^3
 +  6     VeD7 VeD6 VeD5 VeD4 VeD3 VeD2 VeD1 VeD0   Vertical Displayed        ^3
 +  7     VeS7 VeS6 VeS5 VeS4 VeS3 VeS2 VeS1 VeS0   Vertical Sync Position    ^2
 +  8     .... .... .... .... .... .... Ilc1 Ilc0   Interlace Mode            ^4
 +  9     .... .... .... CTV4 CTV3 CTV2 CTV1 CTV0   Character Total Vertical  ^5
 + 10     .... CrM1 CrM0 Css4 Css3 Css2 Css1 Css0   Cursor Mode/ Start Scan   ^6
 + 11     .... .... .... Ces4 Ces3 Ces2 Ces1 Ces0   Cursor End Scan           ^6
 + 12     Ds15 Ds14 Ds13 Ds12 Ds11 Ds10 Ds09 Ds08   Display Start Adrs (Hi)   ^7
 + 13     Ds07 Ds06 Ds05 Ds04 Ds03 Ds02 Ds01 Ds00   Display Start Adrs (Lo)   ^7
 + 14     Cp15 Cp14 Cp13 Cp12 Cp11 Cp10 Cp09 Cp08   Cursor Position (Hi)      ^7
 + 15     Cp07 Cp06 Cp05 Cp04 Cp03 Cp02 Cp01 Cp00   Cursor Position (Lo)      ^7
 + 16     LpV7 LpV6 LpV5 LpV4 LpV3 LpV2 LpV1 LpV0   Light Pen Veritcal        ^8
 + 17     LpH7 LpH6 LpH5 LpH4 LpH3 LpH2 LpH1 LpH0   Light Pen Horizontal      ^8
 + 18     Ua15 Ua14 Ua13 Ua12 Ua11 Ua10 Ua09 Ua08   Update Address (Hi)       ^9
 + 19     Ua07 Ua06 Ua05 Ua04 Ua03 Ua02 Ua01 Ua00   Update Address (Lo)       ^9
 + 20     At15 At14 At13 At12 At11 At10 At09 At08   Attribute Start Adrs (Hi) ^7
 + 21     At07 At06 At05 At04 At03 At02 At01 At00   Attribute Start Adrs (Lo) ^7
 + 22     HcP3 HcP2 HcP1 HcP0 IcS3 IcS2 IcS1 IcS0   Hz Chr Pxl Ttl/IChar Spc  ^A
 + 23     .... .... .... VcP4 VcP3 VcP2 VcP1 VcP0   Vert. Character Pxl Spc   ^5
 + 24     BlkM RvsS Vss5 Vss4 Vss3 Vss2 Vss1 Vss0   Block/Rvs Scr/V. Scroll ^9^B^C
 + 25     Text Atri Semi Dble Hss3 Hss2 Hss1 Hss0   Diff. Mode Sw/H. Scroll  ^D,^E
 + 26     Fgd3 Fgd2 Fgd1 Fgd0 Bgd3 Bgd2 Bgd1 Bgd0   ForeGround/BackGround Col ^F
 + 27     Rin7 Rin6 Rin5 Rin4 Rin3 Rin2 Rin1 Rin0   Row/Adrs. Increment       ^G
 + 28     CSa2 CSa1 CSa0 RamT .... .... .... ....   Character Set Addrs/Ram  ^H,^I
 + 29     .... .... .... UdL4 UdL3 UdL2 UdL1 UdL0   Underline Scan Line       ^6
 + 30     WdC7 WdC6 WdC5 WdC4 WdC3 WdC2 WdC1 WdC0   Word Count (-1)           ^9
 + 31     Dta7 Dta6 Dta5 Dta4 Dta3 Dta2 Dta1 Dta0   Data                      ^9  
 + 32     BlkF BlkE BlkD BlkC BlkB BlkA Blk9 Blk8   Block Copy Source (hi)    ^9
 + 33     Blk7 Blk6 Blk5 Blk4 Blk3 Blk2 Blk1 Blk0   Block Copy Source (lo)    ^9
 + 34     DeB7 DeB6 DeB5 DeB4 DeB3 DeB2 DeB1 DeB0   Display Enable Begin      ^J
 + 35     DeE7 DeE6 DeE5 DeE4 DeE3 DeE2 DeE1 DeE0   Display Enable End        ^J
 + 36     .... .... .... .... Drm3 Drm2 Drm1 Drm0   DRAM Refresh Rate         ^K
 +
 +                             +-----------------+
 +                             | Register Usage: |
 +                             +-----------------+
 +
 +^1 : Register #0:     Horizontal Total
 +---  Register #1:     Horizontal Displayed
 +     Register #2:     Horizontal Sync Pulse
 +  
 +  These two register function to define the display width of the screen. 
 +Register 0 will contain the number of characters minus 1 between sucessive
 +horizontal sync pulses, the horizontal border and the interval between
 +horizontal sync pulses. The normal value for this is usually set to 126.
 +Register 1 specifies how many of the positions as specified in register 0 can
 +actually be used to display characters.  The default value for this is 80. 
 +The VDC can take values less than 80 and thus, will only display that many
 +characters. A useful effect can be a sweep from the right by incrementing
 +the value here from 1 to 80. Register #2 specifies the starting character 
 +position at which the vertical sync pulse begins. Thus, it also determines
 +where on the active screen characters appear. A default value of 102, 
 +increasing the value moves the screen to the left, decreasing it moves it to
 +the right.
 + 
 +^2 : Register #3:     Vertical / Horizontal Sync Position.
 +---- Register #7:     Vertical Sync Position 
 +
 +  In Register 3, Bits 0-3 of this register specifies the horizontal sync width
 +and should be equal to 1 + the number of pixels per character. Thus, the value
 +here is normally 1+8 or 9. Bits 4-7 of register 3 specify the vertical sync
 +width and normally contains a value of 4. For interlace sync and video mode,
 +use a value that is twice the number of scan lines desired. Register #7 allows
 +for adjustment of where the vertical sync will be generated allowing shifting
 +of the actual display up and down. Normally, a value of 4, decreasing the value
 +will move the screen down, increasing it will appear to move it upwards.
 +
 +^3 : Register #4:     Vertical Total
 +---- Register #5:     Vertical Total Fine Adjust
 +     Register #6:     Vertical Displayed
 +
 +  Register #4 of this register determines the total number of screen rows, 
 +including the rows for the active display, and the top and bottom borders in
 +addition to that of the vertical sync width. The value held here is normally
 +a value of 32 for NTSC systems (US Standard) or 39 for PAL(European) systems.
 +Register #5 holds in bits 0-4 a "fine-adjust" where any extra scan lines that
 +are necessary to make up the display can be specified here. The value here is 
 +normally a 0 in both the NTSC and PAL initializations by the kernal and bits
 +5-7 are unused, always returning a binary 1111. Register #6 specifies the total
 +number of the vertical character positions (as set in Register 4) that can be
 +used for actual display of characters. Thus, this register usually holds a 
 +value of 25 for a standard 25-row display.
 + 
 +^4 : Register #8:     Interlace Mode Control
 +----
 +  
 +  Register 8 allows control of various display modes the 8563 can generate. 
 +Bits 0 and 1 are the only bits used in this register, the rest always reading
 +a binary 1. Bits 0 and 1 are configured as follows:
 +
 +  Binary %00, %10 - NonInterlaced Mode
 +              %01 - Interlaced Sync
 +              %11 - Interlaced Sync and Video
 +
 +  Note that the default value is $00 which is standard, non-interlaced.
 +Interlaced sync draws each horizontal scan line twice but appears to suffer from
 +an annoying jitter due to how it is drawn. Interlaced Sync and Video draws twice
 +as many lines, thus doubling the resolution. However, it also suffers from
 +jitter and that is why most monitors suffer horribly when using programs that 
 +support more than 30 rows. Note that for interlaced sync and video, the
 +following registers will need to be changed: #'s: 0,4,6,7,8.
 +
 +^5 : Register #9:     Total Scan Lines Per Character
 +---- 
 +  
 +  Bits 0-4 of this register are the only relevant ones, the rest returning a 
 +binary 1. Bits 0-4 determine the character height in scan-lines of displayed
 +characters and allow up to scan-line heights of 32 scan lines. The VDC normally
 +sets aside 16 bytes for each character (normally, each byte is equivlent to
 +1 scan line) so the value here could be increased to 16-1 and a double-height
 +character set could be loaded in. Note, however that values less than 16 will
 +tell the VDC to use a 8,192 byte character set (normal) while specifying values
 +greater than 16 will make it use 32 bytes per character even if some of the 
 +bytes are not used.
 + 
 +^6 : Register #10:    Cursor Mode / Start Scan Line     
 +---- Register #11:    Cursor End Scan Line.
 +     Register #29:    UnderLine Scan Line Control.
 +  
 +  These registers allow the user to specify the cursor blink mode, as well as
 +the starting and ending scan lines for the cursor (allowing a full solid, 
 +an underline, Bits 0-4 of regiseter #10 determines the scan line within each
 +position for the top of the cursor. Normally, this value holds a value
 +of 0 for the block cursor, or a value of 7 for the underline cursor. Bits 5-6 of
 +Register 10 specify the blink rate for the cursor. A value of %00 specifies no
 +blink, ie: a solid cursor. A value of %01 specifies no cursor, a value of %10
 +specifies a flash rate of 1/16 the screen refresh rate, while a value of %11
 +specifies a flash rate of 1/32 the screen refresh rate. Note that bit 7 of
 +Register 10 is unused and normally returns a binary 1. Register 11 specifies
 +the bottom scan lines in bits 0-4, the other unused bits returning a binary 1.
 +The value held in these bits usually is 7 for the block and underline cursor
 +modes in the normal 128 editor. Register #29 is used to indicate where the scan
 +line is "set" in the character. The "underline" is only 1 pixel tall and thus,
 +this location just indicates the start and end location in pixels, similair to 
 +registers #10 and #11 being the same value. Note that bits 5-7 of this register
 +is unused and normally return a binary 1.
 +
 +^7 : Register #12:    Display Start Address (Hi)
 +---- Register #13:    Display Start Address (Lo)
 +     Register #14:    Cursor Position       (Hi)
 +     Register #15:    Cursor Position       (Lo)
 +     Register #20:    Attribute Start Addrs (Hi)
 +     Register #21:    Attribute Start Addrs (Lo)
 + 
 +  Note first, that all of these registers are grouped in Hi byte, Lo byte order
 +which is usually different from the 6502 convention of low byte, hi byte (ie: 
 +in normal 6502 ml, $c000 is stored as $00 $c0, however in the 8563 it would be
 +stored as $c0 $00).  Registers 12 and 13 determine, where in VDC memory the
 +8563 is the start of the screen. Incrementing this value by 80 (the number of
 +characters per line) and with a little additional work can provide a very 
 +effecient way of having a screen that "seems" to be larger than just 80x25.
 +The cursor position in registers 14 and 15 reflect the actual character in
 +memory that the cursor currently lies over. If it's not on the display screen,
 +then it is not displayed. Registers 20 and 21 reflect where in the 8563 memory
 +attribute memory is held. Attribute memory refers to the character attributes
 +such as flash, inverse video, color etc that can be set for each character.
 + 
 +^8 : Register #16:    Light Pen Vertical
 +---- Register #17:    Light Pen Horizontal
 + 
 +  These registers return the light pen position and refer to the actual 
 +character positions on screen (ie: values ranging from 1..25 for vertical).
 +The horizontal reading will not corrospond exactly to character positions, but
 +will range from values of 27-29 to 120 depending on the edge of the screen.
 +It's recommended that the horizontal character position is given more tolerance
 +than the vertical light pen position for this reason.
 + 
 +^9 : Register #18:    Update Address (Hi)
 +---- Register #19:    Update Address (Lo)
 +     Register #24:7   Copy / Fill Bit
 +     Register #30:    Word Count(-1) 
 +     Register #31:    Data
 +     Register #32:    Block Copy Src (Hi)
 +     Register #33:    Block Copy Src (Lo)
 + 
 +  These registers allow control and manipulation of the 16k or 64k block within
 +the 8563 memory.  Registers 18 and 19 point to where in VDC memory the next
 +read or write will take place from. Register 30 specifies the number of bytes
 +- 1 to copy or fill depending on bit # 7 of register #24. Normally, the 8563 
 +will automatically perform the designated operation (of what bit 7 of register
 +#24 says) when register #31 (the data byte) is written to. Registers 18 and 19
 +automatically update upon read or write, so that is why register #30 specifies
 +a value 1 less than what is actually needed. Register #31, as already mentioned
 +is the byte to write for register #30 times (or copy from Register#32 / #33).
 +If register #24, bit 7 is specified as a binary 1 then the memory is copied from
 +the address in VDC memory pointed to by registers #32 and #33.
 +
 +^A : Register #22:    Character Horizontal Size Control
 +----
 +
 +  Bits 0-3 of this register determines how many horizontal pixels are used
 +for each displayed character. Values greater than 8 here result in apparent
 +gaps in the display. Inter-character spacing can be achieved by setting this
 +value greater than that of bits 4-7. Bits 4-7 determine the width of each
 +character position in pixels. Thus, while bits 0-3 allocate n-pixels, bits
 +4-7 specify how many of those pixels are used for character display.
 +
 +^B : Register #24:5   Reverse Screen Bit
 +---- Register #24:6   Blink Rate for Characters.
 +
 +  Bit #6 specifies for the VDC for all pixels normally unset on the VDC screen
 +to be set, and all set pixels to be unset.  Bit #5 specifies the blink rate
 +for all characters with the blink attribute. Setting this to a binary 1
 +specifies a blink rate of 1/32 the refresh rate, while a binary 0 is equivlant
 +to a blink rate 1/16th of the refresh rate.
 +
 +^C : Register #24:0-4 Vertical Smooth Scroll
 +----
 +   
 +  The 8563 provides for a smooth scroll, allowing bits 0-4 to function as an 
 +indicator of the number of bits to scroll the screen vertically upward.
 +
 +^D : Register #25:7   Text or Graphics Mode Indicator Bit
 +---- Register #25:6   Monochrome Mode Bit
 +     Register #25:5   Semi-Graphics Mode
 +     Register #25:4   Double-Pixel Mode
 +
 +  The 8563 allows the implementation of a graphics mode, in where all of the 16k
 +of the screen may be bit-mapped sequentially resulting in a resolution of
 +640x200 (see Craig Bruce's 8563 Line-Plotting routine in the first issue for a
 +more detailed explanation of this feature). Setting this bit to 1 specifies
 +graphics mode, binary 0 indicates text mode.  Bit 6 indicates to the 8563 where
 +to obtain its color information etc, about the characters. Bit 6 when it is a
 +binary 0 results in the 8563 taking it's color information from bits 4-7 of 
 +register 26. When this bit is a binary 1, the attribute memory is used to 
 +obtain color, flash, reverse information. Also note than when this bit is a
 +binary 1 that only the first of the two character sets is available. Bit #5
 +indicates a semi-graphics mode that allows the rightmost pixel of any characters
 +to be repeated through-out the intercharacter spacing gap. Activating it on the
 +normal display will result in what appears to be a "digital" character font. The
 +8563 with bit #4 allows a pixel-double feature which results in all displayed
 +horizontal pixels having twice their usual size. Thus, a 40 column screen is
 +easily obtainable although the values in registers #00-#02 must be halved.
 +
 +^E : Register #25:    Horizontal Smooth Control
 +---- 
 + 
 +  This register is analogous to register #24 Vertical Smooth Control and 
 +functions similairly. Increasing this bits moves the screen one pixel to the
 +right, while decreasing them moves the screen one pixel to the left.
 + 
 +^F : Register #26:    ForeGround / BackGround Color Register
 +----
 + 
 +  This register, in bits 0-3 specifies the background color of the display while
 +bits 4-7 specify the foreground character colors when attributes are disabled 
 +(via bit 6 of register #25).  Note, these are not the usual C= colors but are
 +instead organized as follows:
 +
 +   Bit Value  Decimal Value   Color
 +   ----------------------------------       +-----------------------------+
 +    %0000       0 / $00       Black          Note: Bit 0 = Intensity    |
 +    %0001       1 / $01       Dark Gray            Bit 1 = Blue         |
 +    %0010       2 / $02       Dark Blue     | RGBI   Bit 2 = Green        |
 +    %0011       3 / $03       Light Blue    |        Bit 3 = Red          | 
 +    %0100       4 / $04       Dark Green    |                             |
 +    %0101       5 / $05       Light Green   +-----------------------------+
 +    %0110       6 / $06       Dark Cyan
 +    %0111       7 / $07       Light Cyan
 +    %1000       8 / $08       Dark Red
 +    %1001       9 / $09       Light Red
 +    %1010      10 / $0A       Dark Purple
 +    %1011      11 / $0B       Light Purple
 +    %1100      12 / $0C       Dark Yellow
 +    %1101      13 / $0D       Light Yellow
 +    %1110      14 / $0E       Light Gray (Dark White)
 +    %1111      15 / $0F       White
 +
 +^G : Register #27:    Row Address Display Increment
 +----
 +
 +  This register specifies the number of bytes to skip, when displaying
 +characters on the 8563 screen. Normally, this byte holds a value of $00 
 +indicating no bytes to skip; however typically programs that "scroll" the 
 +screen do so by setting this to 80 or 160 allowing the program to then alter
 +the Screen Start (Registers #12 and #13) and appear to "scroll". Note the 
 +normal C= 128 Kernal Screen Editor does not support this function.
 +
 +^H : Register #28:7-5 Character Set Address
 +----
 + 
 +  These bits indicate the address of screen memory * 8k. Thus the values in 
 +these bits may be multiplied by 8192 to obtain the starting character set
 +position (normall these bits hold a value of $01 indicating the character
 +set begins at 8192).  Note that the character set is not in ROM, but is usually
 +copied to 8192 when the computer is first turned on and the 8563 is initialized.
 +(Examine the INIT80 routine at $CE0C in bank 15).
 +
 +^I : Register #28:4   Ram Chip Type
 +----
 +  
 +  This bit specifies whether 16k or 64k of RAM has been installed. Note, however
 +that this value may not reflect future upgrades from 16k to 64k.  It is best,
 +if a program is dependant on 64k to write to an address > 16k and see if it
 +is mirrored at any other location in another section of memory. This bit has a
 +binary value of 0 if 16k or 1 if 64k RAM.
 +
 +^J : Register #34:    Display Enable Begin
 +---- Register #35:    Display Enable End
 +
 +  The 8563 can extend it's horizontal blanking interval to blank a portion of
 +the displayed screen.  The value in register #34 determines the rightmost 
 +blanked column, and register #35 determines the leftmost blanked column.  Note
 +that a value of 6 usually corresponds to the leftmost column of the screen, 
 +while a value of 85 corresponds to the rightmost column.  This feature is useful
 +for "inside-out" wraps in which both the right and left margin can close-in on
 +text, the text can be cleared, these values reset etc... 
 +
 +^K : Register #36:    Refresh Cycles per Scan Line
 +----
 + 
 +  This register in bits 0-3 allows the user (if he had any reason) to specify
 +the number of refresh cycles for memory for the ram.  Setting this value too
 +low may cause the RAM to not remember all the information.  Changing this value
 +gives some advantage, in terms of display speed increases but is not advised. 
 +The value normally held here is $05, for five refresh cycles per scan line.
 +
 +                           +--------------------------+
 +                           | 8563 Memory Organization |
 +                           +--------------------------+
 +
 +  Normally, the extra memory of the C=128's equipped with 64k goes unused (48k
 +worth) unless programs like Basic-8 etc, take advantage of it. There are various
 +mod files describing the upgrade from 16k to 64k and it is _strongly_ advised
 +(although the author has not yet done so) and be aware that ***OPENING YOUR
 +COMPUTER JUST TO LOOK, YOU MAY MESS IT UP*** and it is _strongly_ advised that 
 +you contact a person experienced with electronics to perform the upgrade for
 +you.  Note also that some mail order companies are offering an "up-grade board"
 +which plugs into the 8563 slot and does not involve desoldering the RAM chips.
 +
 +  Now, the 8563 uses the 16k of memory (it ignores the extra 48k of memory when
 +it's got 64k, thus the following applies also to the 8563's equipped with 64k
 +of memory) and normally, has the following memory map:
 + 
 +  $0000 - $07ff - Screen Memory
 +  $0800 - $0fff - Attribute Memory
 +  $1000 - $1fff - Unused
 +  $2000 - $2fff - UpperCase / Graphic Character Set   (Char Set #1)
 +  $3000 - $3fff - LowerCase / UpperCase Character Set (Char Set #2)
 +  
 +                          +---------------------------+ 
 +                          | Writing to 8563 Registers |
 +                          +---------------------------+ 
 +
 +  Now how do we write to these registers we've learned so much about? There's
 +several ways depending on how lazy you are.  The pure-ml version:
 + 
 +WRITING TO A REGISTER:
 + 
 +   writereg = * ; this routine writes .a to register # .x, Asssumes I/O block in
 +         stx $d600
 +       - ldx $d600
 +         bpl -
 +         sta $d601
 +         rts
 +   
 +  also, in bank 15 there is a similair routine at $cdcc. Calling it at $cdca
 +loads .x with a value of 31 indicating the data register which is often useful.
 + 
 +  From basic, just use a SYS 52684, value, register#
 +
 + READING FROM A REGISTER:
 +   
 +   readreg = * ; this routine returns the contents of register # .x in .a
 +               ; Assumes I/O block switched in
 +        stx $d600
 +      - ldx $d600
 +        bpl -
 +        lda $d601
 + 
 +   or use the routine in bank 15 at $cdda.  From basic, a SYS 52698,,register#
 +and then a RREG A returns the value in variable A. 
 +
 +                          +--------------------+
 +                          | Further 8563 Notes |
 +                          +--------------------+ 
 +
 +  Many C=128 owners are still using their monitors they had when they had their
 +C=64's and are able to use the 80 column screen through a "converter-cable"
 +(basically taking pin 7 of the RGBI port and feeding it as raw video).  There
 +is also a text file out explaining how to take the R,G,B,I pins on that port
 +to display shades of gray on a monochrome monitor (basically tying resistors
 +with diodes across each color pin and then joining them).  There is relief!! :-)
 +
 +  The 8563 is a chip full of cabibilities waiting to be found and developed. I'd
 +be interested in seeing any code / techniques that readers of this net-mag have
 +found.  Given that enough are submitted, a possible listing of some of the 
 +better tricks and techniques might be possible in the future.
 +
 +===========================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== FILE SPLITTER  - Mark Lawrence ======
 +9152427d@levels.unisa.edu.au
 +<code>
 +
 +This program stemmed from the inability of XLINK to transfer CS-DOS from my pc
 +to my 128.  XLINK transfers about 43K (I think), whereas CS-DOS was about 48K.
 +
 +Rather than do the whole thing at once, why not cut the job up into more
 +sizeable pieces, transfer the program piece by piece, and then reassemble the
 +pieces at the other end?
 +
 +And so eventuated the birth of SPLIT :-)
 +
 +SPLIT, written entirely in Turbo Pascal, allows you to split DOS files into
 +smaller pieces - you can either tell it a size to split the files into, or
 +tell it a number of files to create.  You then give SPLIT the base filename
 +for the new files WITH NO EXTENSION - SPLIT will give the new files their own
 +extensions, and SPLIT will then create these files to your liking.
 +
 +Just transfer the following program to Turbo, compile it, and away you go!!!
 +
 +Hopefully, the program is commented enough to give you a fair idea of what's
 +going on - although it isn't at all complicated to understand.
 +
 +At some points I have comments that seem the least important - END { CASE } -
 +they are to help me when I program...  I find it easy to lose track of which
 +END is for what, stuff up my indentation, lost bits and pieces, delete the
 +wrong parts, etc, etc.
 +
 +I found it helped me, so it may help others.
 +
 +If you need any further explanation, just let me know :-)
 +
 +Another interesting thing I discovered about XLINK.  It doesn't transfer the
 +files to the correct size.  I think (haven't had time to sit down and check
 +it out yet) it transfers to the nearest 256, 512 or 1024 byte boundary.  If
 +your file doesn't reach the boundary, it will pad the rest out with zeroes
 +I think.  So, when you go to reassemble the file, it's got all this garbage
 +in places where it shouldn't be, and the thing won't work.
 +
 +So, when SPLITting a file, specify the size to a multiple of one of these
 +boundaries.
 +
 +Then, using a m/c monitor, load all the parts in together.
 +
 +I'll try to set aside a little time in the not too distant future to write a
 +m/c program to join the parts for you, since it can get confusing reassembling
 +the parts by hand, and the built in dos copy that commodore so kindly graced us
 +with is so darned fast <cough> <cough> :-)
 +
 +[Ed. Note: While the dos copy command is slow.... for those of you who are
 + impatient try using somethine like the following to join files togather making
 + sure that there's enough space on the disk:
 +     open15,8,15,"c0:name=name1,name2...": close15]
 +
 +
 +So, good luck and enjoy!
 +
 +---------------------------------------------------------------------------
 +Program Split (input,output);
 +
 +Uses Dos;
 +  { uses specific file handling routines }
 +Var
 +   InFile,Outfile                : File of Byte;
 +   Count,Number,Size,NewSize,
 +   Last,Counter                  : Longint;
 +   InFileName,Newfile,OutFileName: String;
 +   S,                          : PathStr;
 +                               : DirStr;
 +                               : NameStr;
 +                               : ExtStr;
 +   SplitType,Check               : Char;
 +   Data                          : Byte;
 +   Extension                     : String[3];
 +
 +Begin
 +   For count := 1 to 25 do
 +      Writeln;
 +      { Dumb way to clear the screen :-)  }
 +
 +   Writeln ('*********************************************************');
 +   Writeln (' FILE SPLITTING UTILITY V0.01 (C) 1992 MARK LAWRENCE  *');
 +   Writeln ('              (-: MADE IN AUSTRALIA :-)               *');
 +   Writeln ('*********************************************************');
 +   Writeln;
 +   Write   ('Enter Filename (including drive and path)    ');
 +   ReadLn  (InFileName);
 +   Writeln;
 +
 +   For count := 1 to length (InFileName) do
 +      InFileName[count] := UpCase ( InFileName[count] );
 +      { change filename to all uppercase characters }
 +
 +   FSplit(InFileName,d,n,e);
 +      { split filename into it's respective parts:
 +              d - Directory
 +              n - Name
 +              e - Extension }
 +
 +   S := FSearch(InFileName,GetEnv(D));
 +      { search for file FILENAME in directory D }
 +
 +   if S = '' then
 +      writeln ('*ERROR*     File "',InFileName,'" not found.')
 +      { S equals '' (nothing) if FILENAME doesn't exist }
 +
 +   Else
 +   Begin
 +      Assign  (Infile,InFileName);
 +      Reset   (Infile);
 +      { Open the Input File }
 +
 +      Size := FileSize (InFile);
 +      { Get file size }
 +
 +      Writeln ('FileName:     ',InFileName);
 +      Writeln ('FileSize:     ',Size,' Bytes.');
 +      Writeln;
 +      { Show file info }
 +
 +      Writeln ('In which way would you like the file split?');
 +      Writeln ('     (a)  Number of Bytes.');
 +      Writeln ('     (b)  Number of Files.');
 +      Repeat
 +         Write ('Enter your selection    ');
 +         Readln (SplitType);
 +         SplitType := UpCase(SplitType);
 +      Until (SplitType >= 'A') and (SplitType <= 'B');
 +      { let user choose which way to split file }
 +
 +      Writeln;
 +      Case SplitType of
 +         'A': Begin
 +            { split by number of bytes }
 +            Write ('Enter byte size of new files    ');
 +            Readln (NewSize);
 +            Writeln;
 +            If (NewSize > Size) then
 +               Writeln ('Hey - Even I can''t do that!!!')
 +            Else
 +            begin
 +               Number  := Size div NewSize;
 +               Last    := Size - Number * NewSize;
 +               Number  := Number + 1;
 +               Write ('Enter Base Filename (including drive and path)    ');
 +               Readln (NewFile);
 +               Writeln;
 +               Writeln ('Creating ',Number,' new files...');
 +            End;
 +         End; { A }
 +
 +         'B': Begin
 +            { Split by file size }
 +            Write ('Enter number of new files: ');
 +            Readln(Number);
 +            Writeln;
 +            NewSize := Size div Number + 1;
 +            Last    := Size - (Number - 1) * Newsize;
 +            Number  := Number;
 +            Write ('Enter Base Filename (including drive and path)    ');
 +            Readln (NewFile);
 +            Writeln;
 +            Writeln ('Creating ',Number,' new files...');
 +         End; { B }
 +      End;  { Case }
 +
 +         Writeln;
 +
 +         For Count := 1 to Number do
 +         { NUMBER new files will be created }
 +
 +         Begin
 +            If Count = Number then
 +               NewSize := Last;
 +            { More often than not, the files won't divide evenly from the
 +              original.  So, the last file will be smaller than the rest.
 +              Because of this, I previously calculated the size of the final
 +              file, and here check if we're up to the last part yet - and if
 +              we are, I set the size of the last file accordingly }
 +
 +            Str(Count,Extension);
 +            { Make EXTENSION a string representation of COUNT, to be added to
 +              the OutFileName to make things a tad easier }
 +
 +            OutFileName := Concat(NewFile,'.',Copy('00',1,3-Length(Extension)),E
 +            { Create filename based on which part we're up to }
 +
 +            Assign  (OutFile,OutFileName);
 +            Rewrite (Outfile);
 +            { Open each Output File }
 +
 +            Write   ('Creating ',OutFileName,'... ');
 +
 +            For Counter := 1 to NewSize do
 +            { Write to each Output File }
 +
 +            Begin
 +               Read  (Infile,Data);
 +               Write (OutFile,Data);
 +               { Transfer data from input file to output file }
 +            End;
 +
 +            Close   (Outfile);
 +            { Close each Output File }
 +            Writeln ('Done!');
 +
 +         End;
 +
 +      Writeln;
 +      Writeln ('Job Completed :-)');
 +
 +   end;
 +
 +   For Counter := 1 to 3 do
 +      Writeln;
 +   { Make a bit of space when finished :-) }
 +end.
 +
 +================================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== BANKING ON GEOS ======
 +<code>
 +by Robert A. Knop Jr.
 +
 +I. Introduction
 +
 +GEOS was originally written for the Commodore 64.  When Berkeley Softworks
 +came out with GEOS128 (and, for a time, it wasn't clear that they would; then,
 +it looked like they would release a GEOS128 that wouldn't support the 80
 +column screen; finally, the release of GEOS128 did turn out to be a full 128
 +program), it was largely compatible with GEOS64.  Applications could share
 +documents (a geoPaint file is a geoPaint file), and even many GEOS64
 +appliations run on the 128 in 40 columns.  This heritage is also evident to
 +the GEOS programmer.
 +
 +As we all know, the C-128 has two 64K RAM banks; the C-64 only has one 64K RAM
 +"bank."  Thus, of course, all of GEOS64 goes into that one 64K RAM space.
 +This includes the Kernal as well as the space available to applications.  Once
 +the Kernal, graphics screens, and so forth, have claimed their RAM, the GEOS
 +programmer is left with 23.75K of memory from $0400 to $5fff.
 +
 +To a cursory "glance," the GEOS128 programming environment looks very much
 +like the GEOS64 programming enviroment.  You still have $0400 to $5fff
 +available for applications; graphics screens and variables are in the same
 +place; the Kernal jump table is the same (with some 128 specific additions).
 +What happened to the other 64K that the 128 has available?
 +
 +As it turns out, the core of GEOS128- including the application program space,
 +the 40 column foreground and background screen, and the Kernal jump table- are
 +all in the 128's RAM block 1, what GEOS calls FrontRAM.  To us 128 programmers
 +used to RAM block 0 being the "main" RAM block, this may sound odd.  However,
 +it actually makes sense.  First of all, since GEOS is an operating system in
 +and of itself, and applications almost never need to call the C128's Kernal
 +routines, the application no longer needs access to Bank 15.  Second, it
 +allows GEOS128 to keep much of its memory map the same as GEOS64; it can use
 +the memory range from $200-$3ff in RAM 1 without worrying about disturbing key
 +system routins like STAFAR which are in the same memory range in RAM 0.
 +
 +
 +II. Yeah, Yeah, But What Happened to RAM 0 Anyway?
 +
 +It's still there.  Some of RAM 0 is used by GEOS128 to improve the system
 +performance and to take advantage of the 128's unique features.  (For
 +instance, the code for the "software sprites" seen on the 128's 80 column
 +screen is found beneath $2000 in RAM 0.)  Fortunately, some space does remain
 +available for an application to use.  In RAM 0, the 32K memory space between
 +$2000 and $9fff is not normally used by GEOS, and is ALMOST available for
 +application use [1].
 +
 +Why do I say "almost"?  The problem is desk accessories.  When GEOS 64 loads a
 +desk accessory (DA), it must load it into the same application space as the
 +application loading the DA.  The memory that the DA will used is first saved
 +to disk in a swap file.  Under GEOS128, the routine LdDeskAcc, instead of
 +saving a swap file to disk, copies the memory to be overwritten by the DA to
 +RAM0 between $2000 and $9fff.  So, if your application uses DA's (and it is
 +highly recommended that major applications support DA's), you have to be
 +careful using the space between $2000 and $9fff.  You can use it as temporary
 +swap space within routines- but you cannot assume that it will remain intact
 +whenever your routine returns to the GEOS MainLoop with your application in a
 +state that will allow the loading of DA's.
 +
 +Nowadays, RAM 0 is not the be-all and end-all.  GEOS128 was written for the
 +C=128, not the C=256.  Consequently, if you have expanded your 128 to 256K or
 +512K as described in the articles by Richard Curcio in Twin Cities 128 Issues
 +#30 and #31 [2,3], you have free use of RAM 2-3 (256K) or RAM 2-7 (512K).
 +(Note that you should not touch RAM 4-7 on a 512K 128 if you want to be
 +compatible with task switching as described in TC128 #31.  Also, although GEOS
 +right now does not run in the 2nd 256K, applications should not assume they
 +are in the 1st 256K, and thus should be careful with the 512K mode bits (4-5)
 +in the MMU Ram Configuration Register (RCR), $d506.)  While the number of
 +people with 256K and 512K 128's is now small, you can be sure that it will
 +increase when the promised ZIP accelerator board for the 128 comes out; the
 +current specs for the ZIP board include provisions for memory expansion on the
 +board.
 +
 +RAM 2-3 provide almost another complete 128K available for your application to
 +use.  So how do you go about accessing this?
 +
 +
 +III. Storing Data In Other RAM Blocks
 +
 +The most obvious use for RAM blocks other than FrontRAM (which is the only
 +block where GEOS Kernal routines are available) is as data storage.  For
 +instance, one could visualize a geoPaint previewing utility which loads and
 +decompacts an entire geoPaint document at once to RAM 2.  (The full
 +decompacted geoPaint document would reqire 56.25K.)  One could then quickly
 +scroll through the document by just copying the relevant portions of the
 +bitmap from RAM 2 to the foreground screen.  Or, if one were really bold, one
 +could just redirect the VIC screen memory to the relevant range in RAM2 using
 +the proper MMU and VIC registers.  (This would actully require use of both RAM
 +2 and 3, since VIC screen locations are quantized to 8K; you lose the use of
 +the highest 8K, since you don't want to overwrite the MMU registers at
 +$ff00-$ff05; additional practical considerations make use of the lowest 8K
 +difficult.)
 +
 +GEOS128 provides a few routines for easily moving data between FrontRAM and
 +what it calls BackRAM (but we know it just means RAM 0).  Happily, these
 +routines work quite admirably with RAM 2 and 3.  (To access RAM 4-7, fiddle
 +bits 4 and 5 of the MMU RCR to make the desired RAM blocks appear to the
 +system as virtual RAM 2 and RAM 3, then call these routines.)  The core
 +routine is DoBOp, which is summarized below [4]:
 +
 +***********************************************************************
 +DoBOp=$c2ec:  Copy/verify memory between RAM blocks on the C-128.
 +
 +Pass:
 +   r0   : ADDR1 - address of first ("source") memory range
 +   r1   : ADDR2 - address of second ("destination") memory range
 +   r2   : COUNT - number of bytes to operate on
 +   r3L  : A1BANK - bank of ADDR1 (e.g. 1=FrontRAM, 0=BackRAM)
 +   r3H  : A2BANK - bank of ADDR2
 +      : MODE - operation to perform
 +
 +
 +Returns: r0-r3 unchanged
 +
 +  when verifying: x=$00 if two ranges match, x=$ff if they don't match
 +
 +
 +Destroys: a,x,y
 +
 +
 +The operation mode is passed in y as follows:
 +
 +        bit0  bit1   Description
 +        ----  ----   -----------
 +                  Move from memory at ADDR1 to memory at ADDR2
 +                  Move from memory at ADDR2 to memory at ADDR1
 +                  Swap memory at ADDR1 and ADDR2
 +                  Verify (compare) memory at ADDR1 and ADDR2
 +***********************************************************************
 +
 +(r0, r1, etc. are all the standard BSW symbols defined in the Official GEOS
 +Programmer's Reference Guide [5], and that come in the file geosSym with
 +geoProgrammer.)
 +
 +There are a number of additional routines which are also provided for
 +programmer convenience which automatically set the MODE in the y register for
 +you.  In all of these routines, r0-r3 have the same meaning as they do in
 +DoBOp.
 +
 +Routine     Address  MODE   Description
 +-------     -------  ----   -----------
 +MoveBData    $c2e3    00    Copy data at ADDR1 to ADDR2
 +SwapBData    $c2e6    10    Swap data between ADDR1 and ADDR2
 +VerifyBData  $c2e9    11    Compare data at ADDR1 and ADDR2
 +
 +I have written a short demonstration program which shows the use of MoveBData
 +and VerifyBData.  The full source to this program, BMover, is available
 +through anonymous ftp at tybalt.caltech.edu (in the /pub/rknop/hacking.mag
 +directory) as well as elsewhere.  If you can't find it, contact me (addresses
 +are below).  The source is geoProgrammer code, in geoWrite 2.1 format.  All of
 +the files you need (except geosSym and geosMac, which come with geoProgrammer)
 +are in the bmover.sfx archive.
 +
 +The first function of BMover repeatedly copies a single block on RAM 1 to
 +successive parts in memory in any other specified bank.  The destination bank,
 +destination addresses, size of the block to move, and number of times to copy
 +it are all set in constants found at the beginning of the source file BMovAsm.
 +Once the moves (which use MoveBData) have all been performed, BMover uses
 +VerifyBData to make sure that all of the blocks were copied succesfully.
 +
 +For informational purposes, BMover reports the amount of time (in tenths of
 +seconds) it took to perform all of the moves.  (For this, I use the CIA #1 TOD
 +clock, saving its value at the beginning and end of the move, and subtracting
 +to get the difference.)  I ran a trial where I copied an 8K block of memory to
 +RAM 2 7 times (thus filling 56K of RAM 2).  These moves together took 1 second
 +at 2 MHz, and 2.2 seconds at 1 Mhz.  56K/second may be no DMA, but it's faster
 +than a burst load!
 +
 +
 +IV. Executing Routines In Other Banks
 +
 +So, you've written an object oriented drawing program that stores its list of
 +objects (32 byte records) in RAM 2.  Or, you have a database that has records
 +in RAM 0.  You want to delete one record at the beginning of the list, which
 +means moving all of the subsequent records down over the memory freed up by
 +the deletion.  There are a few things you can do.  One, you can use Craig
 +Bruce's dynamic memory allocation routines (highly recommended).  Two, you can
 +repeated do MoveBData to move memory from RAM 2 (or 0) to a buffer in FrontRAM
 +and back.  Or, you can write a short mover routine in the RAM bank where all
 +the moving is going to happen.
 +
 +This is just an example.  One can visualize other reasons for calling routines
 +in other RAM banks (what I call "extrabankal routines").  There exist no GEOS
 +Kernal routines for calling extrabankal routines.  Additionally, since your
 +main application memory is in RAM 1, you are inable to use the 128 Kernal's
 +JSRFAR (which returns you to Bank 15).  So, we are left with implementing our
 +own JSRFAR.
 +
 +GEOS128 normally operates with NO common memory enabled.  Thanks to one of the
 +less well-known features of the MMU, there is no need to enable common memory.
 +The MMU zero page registers ($d507 and $d508) allow you to locate the zero
 +page that the processor sees anywhere in RAM 0 or RAM 1.  What this means is,
 +no matter what your memory configuration is, the processor sees zero page in
 +the RAM block specified in $d508.  (Unless you have common memory enable, in
 +which case it is not a good idea to put ZP in RAM blocks other than RAM 0
 +[6,7].)  So, zero page is effectively common memory!
 +
 +This provides for the possiblity of copying to zero page a short "switchboard"
 +routine, basically a reimplementation of JSRFAR, which configures the system
 +for the destination bank, jsr's to a routine, reconfigures the system for the
 +calling bank, and rts's.
 +
 +I also demonstrate this technique in BMover.  The second function of BMover
 +first uses MoveBData to copy a routine to $2000 in DESTBANK (which is set
 +right now in the source code to RAM 0).  It then copies the routine ZPJSR to
 +$02, which stores DESTCFG in $ff00 and jsr's to $2000.  The routine at $2000
 +moves some data around in DESTBANK.  Once ZPJSR has returned the program flow
 +to FrontRAM, BMover calls VerifyBData to make sure everything worked.
 +
 +While messing around in different banks, to be safe I dissable IRQ interrupts.
 +On a related note, geoDebugger 2.0 seems to have problems with programs
 +messing around with different banks.  It is not surprising that the BackRAM
 +debugger (which locates itself in RAM 0) would have trouble with programs that
 +tried to use RAM 0, but it also has trouble with programs that try to use RAM
 +2 and 3.  This is true even when one uses the system routine MoveBData.  (I
 +found that I was sometimes able to make it past a call to MoveBData while in
 +the debugger, but that more often the system would hang.  This is all probably
 +an interrupt-related issue.)
 +
 +If one is to be really classy, one doesn't actually have to copy the ZPJSR
 +routine to zero page.  One could assemble the application such that ZPJSR fell
 +to a known offset from a page boundry; then, use the MMU to point zero page to
 +the page containg ZPJSR.  Unfortunately, this technique did not work on my
 +512K expanded 128.  The one incompatility I have found is that with the 512K
 +modification enabled (I do have a switch to disable it, don't worry), the MMU
 +fails to correctly see zero page in RAM 1 when requested to.  Richard Curcio
 +experimented with it, and it seems that when you try to relocate zero page to
 +a page in RAM 1, it is actually seen in RAM 3.  It is not yet clear whether
 +this is a problem with the 256K/512K modification, or if the MMU in a stock
 +128 just relocates ZP to RAM 3 figuring that RAM 3 = RAM 1 (which is true on a
 +stock 128, but not on a 256K expanded 128!)
 +
 +
 +
 +Anyone who wants to get ahold of the BMover source, or who has other
 +questions/comments/flames can contact me, Robert Knop, at the following
 +addresses:
 +
 +InterNet: rknop@tybalt.caltech.edu
 +GEnie:    R.KNOP1
 +U.S. Mail:  Robert Knop
 +            123 S. Chester #3
 +            Pasadena, CA  91106
 +
 +
 +V. References
 +
 +[1] William Coleman, 1989: "Inside GEOS 128"  _The_Transactor_ 9(4), p. 29.
 +
 +[2] Richard Curcio, 1991: "Expanding the 128 Part One: 256K" _Twin_Cities_128_
 +#30, p. 7.
 +
 +[3] Richard Curcio, 1992: "Expanding the 128 Part Two: 4 Mode 512K"
 +_Twin_Cities_128_ #31, p. 5.
 +
 +[4] Berkeley Softworks, 1988: _The_Hitchhiker's_Guide_To_Geos_.
 +
 +[5] Michael Farr, 1987: _The_Offical_GEOS_Programmer's_Reference_Guide_.
 +Bantam Books, New York/Toronto.
 +
 +[6] Larry Greenly et. al, 1986: _Commodore_128_Programmer's_Reference_Guide_.
 +Bantam Books, New York/Toronto.
 +
 +[7] Ottis R. Cowper, 1986: _Mapping_the_Commodore_128_.  Compute! Publications,
 +Greensboro, NC.
 +
 +==============================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== DYNAMIC MEMORY ALLOCATION FOR THE 128: Breaking the 64K Barrier ======
 +<code>
 +by Craig Bruce (csbruce@ccnga.uwaterloo.ca)
 +
 +Although this article would be best described as extremely technical, I think
 +that it has something for everyone.  It could also be described as being
 +extremely long.
 +
 +Below I have written a program that will read in the lines of a file, sort
 +them, and write then back out to another file.  Because of the nature of the
 +problem, the each line of the entire file must reside in the memory of the
 +computer.  I implement and use dynamic memory allocation such that the file to
 +be sorted can be larger than 64K, and I use a dynamic data structure such that
 +the memory is used very efficiently.  The memory routines were extracted from
 +a text editor called "Zed-128" which also breaks the 64K barrier and can edit
 +some humongous files (and very efficiently too).  Although implemented for the
 +C-128, the dynamic memory scheme could also be fairly easily (ie. in a single
 +lifetime) ported to the C-64.
 +
 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 +
 +1. INTRODUCTION
 +
 +How many of us are sick and tired of the "64K limit" that a lot of programs for
 +the 128 and 64 seem to have?  Many terminal programs, text editors, and even
 +file copiers seem to be afflicted with this problem.  Another problem is that
 +programs often reserve large sections of memory for specific purposes (such as
 +the kill buffer of a text editor) and cannot reconfigure themselves (very
 +easily) for different demands.  Still another problem is that many programs do
 +not make use of a Ram Expansion Unit (if you are fortunate enough to have one)
 +to store your volumnous user data.
 +
 +The way to overcome the limitations of the 64K architecture of the C128 and
 +C64 is to use dynamically allocated memory.  What this means is that
 +initially, all of the memory of the computer is free and when a user program
 +requires some memory to store user data, it calls a special subroutine that
 +allocates a given number of bytes of memory to the program to store the user
 +data.  And when the program is finished using that chunk of memory, it calls a
 +special subroutine to free the memory chunk and make it available for future
 +allocation requests.
 +
 +One complication of this memory usage scheme is that a program has to keep
 +track of which chunks of memory it uses for what.  This is where dynamic data
 +structures come in.  The most important concept here is a pointer.  A pointer
 +is simply a variable that stores the address of some data structure (ie. some
 +chunk of memory).  If we know the address of a data structure, then we can
 +read it and modify it.
 +
 +To overcome the problem of not knowing how many records will need to be
 +stored, records are often stored in lists, where every record contains a
 +pointer to the next record in the list, except for the last one, which
 +contains a special value that could not be mistaken for an ordinary pointer
 +(it is called the Null (or Nil for you Pascalers) pointer).  Thus, if we know
 +the address of the first record (by using a "head pointer"), then we have
 +sequential access to all of the records in the list.  If we want to add or
 +delete records from the list, then we must modify the other pointers such that
 +the consistency of the list is maintained.  Organizations other than simple
 +lists are also possible.
 +
 +The implementation here is able to allocate RAM0 memory for storing user data
 +records, as well as RAM1 memory and even REU memory.  As long as the
 +application program keeps track of the pointers to its records, large volumes
 +of user data can be stored since it will be distributed among all of the
 +memory that is available from both the internal memory banks and the external
 +memory banks, thus breaking the 64K barrier.
 +
 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 +
 +2. FOR THE NOVICE HACKER
 +
 +You get a sorting utility program.  This program implements the insertion sort
 +algorithm, so don't expect to break any speed records.  Also, the way that
 +dynamic memory is implemented here is more suited for large data structures
 +that will only be accessed slowly and infrequently (such as the current
 +document in a text editor); however, I wanted to come up with a useful utility
 +and I have never heard of a general file sorter for the 128 or 64.  The
 +insertion sort does, however, lend itself well to being used with dynamic data
 +structures in general, since you don't actually have to move anything; you
 +just change a couple of pointers in order to insert a line (record) between
 +two other lines.  Also, it turns out the the insertion sort is quite efficient
 +if your input file is already mostly or partially sorted.
 +
 +The sort utility itself is completely machine language but assumes that the
 +input and output files are already opened, so a BASIC driver program is
 +required to set things up to and allow the user to easily change the sorting
 +parameters.  Such a program is listed here:
 +
 + 1 i$="inputfile.txt" : id=8 : sf=1
 + 2 o$="outputfile.txt" : od=8
 + 3 :
 + 100 print"loading sort.bin..."
 + 110 bank 15
 + 120 bload"sort.bin",u(id)
 + 130 print"scratching old file..."
 + 140 scratch(o$),u(od)
 + 150 print"sorting..."
 + 160 open1,id,2,"0:"+i$
 + 170 open2,od,3,"0:"+o$+",s,w"
 + 180 sys dec("1300"),sf
 + 190 close2
 + 200 close1
 + 210 print"finished!"
 +
 +Lines 1 and 2 set up the sorting parameters: the input and output filenames,
 +the input and output file device numbers, and the sorting field position.
 +Change the "sf" value to the position of the first character of the key
 +field.  The first position on the line is 1 (not 0).  (This corresponds to
 +what Zed uses for columns).  Starting from that position, the rest of the line
 +is used for the comparison that determines the order of the lines.  If a line
 +is encountered that is shorter than the position of the sorting field, the key
 +value is taken to be the Null String (which comes before any other string).
 +
 +The program continues to load in the machine language (which fits into the
 +$1300 slot) and scratch the output file if it already exists.  Then the files
 +are opened, machine language is called, and the files are closed and the
 +program exits.  While reading the file, the program will split any lines that
 +are longer than 242 characters and treat them as multiple lines.
 +
 +For testing the sort utility, I used a file that contains 1058 lines of the
 +following form:
 +
 +ROXETTE                     MUST HAVE BEEN LOVE                       A01-1-01
 +ADAMS, BRYAN                SUMMER OF '69                             A05-1-10
 +JOEL, BILLY                 PRESSURE                                  M11-1-07
 +EAGLES                      NEW KID IN TOWN                           R06-2-04
 +ELECTRIC LIGHT ORCHESTRA    CALLING AMERICA                           R11-1-05
 +COCKBURN, BRUCE             WONDERING WHERE THE LIONS ARE             R14-1-03
 +
 +As you may guess, it is a tape library.  The file is 83K in length.  I sorted
 +it on both my 1581 (with JiffyDOS) and my RamLink and then I sorted again the
 +file that I sorted in the first place.  The resulting execution times are as
 +follows:
 +
 +    WITH EXPANSION MEMORY                WITHOUT EXPANSION MEMORY
 +
 + Ramlink regular = 110 seconds         Ramlink regular = 376 seconds
 + Ramlink sorted  =  20 seconds         Ramlink sorted  =  24 seconds
 + 1581 regular    = 120 seconds         1581 regular    = 397 seconds
 + 1581 sorted      33 seconds         1581 sorted      55 seconds
 +
 +You'll note that having expansion memory makes sort operate faster.  This is
 +because the REU Controller can transfer data around faster than the CPU can.
 +The effect is even more pronounced when using records longer than 78-character
 +lines of text.  This is why it is sensible to use expansion memory for general
 +data storage and accessing.  The reason why the execution times are so long is
 +that approximately 1058*529/2 = 280,000 "far memory" line-length fetches have
 +to take place, along with that number of "zpload"s and string comparisons, and
 +1058 "malloc"s and "free"s.  Also, we all know that the Commodore file reading
 +and writing mechanisms are not severely swift.
 +
 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 +
 +3. FOR THE INTERMEDIATE HACKER
 +
 +You get a dynamic memory allocation and usage package that can be incorporated
 +into your own programs.
 +
 +3.1. MEMORY PACKAGE CALLS
 +
 +The package includes eight system calls:
 +
 + startup ()
 + shutdown()
 + zpload  ( [zp1]=FarPointer, .X=ZpAddr, .Y=Length )
 + zpstore ( [zp1]=FarPointer, .X=ZpAddr, .Y=Length )
 + fetch   ( [zp1]=FarPointer, (zw1)=Ram0pointer, .AY=Length )
 + stash   ( [zp1]=FarPointer, (zw1)=Ram0pointer, .AY=Length )
 + malloc  ( .AY=Length ) : [zp1]=FarPointer, .CS=error
 + free    ( [zp1]=FarPointer, .AY=Length ) : .CS=error
 +
 +The "(...)" means input parameters and ":" preceeds output parameters.  ".X"
 +and ".Y" refer to the processor registers and ".AY" means the 16-bit value
 +with the .A register holding the low byte and the .Y register holding the high
 +byte.  With "(zw1)" I am refering to the indirect pointer in the zero page
 +locations "zw1" (low byte) and "zw1+1" (high byte) ("zw" means zero page word
 +and it is assigned to locations $FE to $FF) and with "[zp1]" I am refering to
 +the three byte pointer value in locations "zp1" (address low byte), "zp1+1"
 +(address high byte), and "zp1+2" (bank number byte) ("zp" means zero page
 +pointer and it is assigned to addresses $FA to $FC).  This three-byte pointer
 +is refered to as a "Far Pointer" The ".CS=error" means that if the routine
 +returns with the carry flag set, an error has occured.  The only possible
 +error return in this package is if malloc cannot find enough contiguous free
 +memory to satisfy your request.
 +
 +You do not actually have to know what the bank numbers mean since they are
 +generated and used by the package as an opaque data type (parlez-vous
 +Modula-2?), but here is what they mean anyway.  A value of $3F means internal
 +bank RAM0 and a value of $7F means internal bank RAM1.  This works out
 +conveniently in the implementation, since these are the MMU configuration
 +register values for those two banks.  A value from $80 to $FE refers to an
 +expansion (REU) memory bank.  $80 means expansion bank0, $81 bank1, etc.  This
 +means that the package can support up to 8 Megs (minus 64K) of expansion
 +memory (and it does).  These values are convenient to use since after loading
 +the bank number into a register, the Negative flag of the processor will be
 +set (useful if handling expansion memory is a special case), and this value
 +can be put directly into the REU Controller's bank register.  I don't think
 +you have to worry about having the high bit be a "1" since it is done
 +consistently and I have never heard of an REU larger than 2 Megs.  A bank
 +value of $FF is used to represent the Null pointer.
 +
 +The "startup" routine installs the common code, determines the size of your
 +REU, and initializes the dynamic memory allocation mechanism.  In order for
 +the package to access internal memory bank RAM1, it has to call a routine that
 +is in memory below address $0400.  Since the package starts at $1300, it has
 +to copy a few "common code" subroutines into low memory such that it can call
 +them later.  The common code is installed at address $0200, the BASIC input
 +buffer.  Don't overwrite this area while the package is in use.  The "sniff"
 +routine is called to determine the number of banks that your REU has.  Zero
 +banks means that you have no REU.  While sniffing, the package overwrites the
 +first four bytes of every existing expansion bank (unless you limit the number
 +of expansion banks that the package is allowed to use).  To initialize the
 +dynamic memory allocation, the "free" routine is called for RAM0, RAM1, and
 +each expansion bank.  RAM0 from $4000 to the top of BASIC memory ($FEFF) is
 +freed, RAM1 from $0400 to $FEFF is freed, and all expansion banks are freed
 +between addresses $0000 to $FFF7.  Thus, if you have no expansion memory, you
 +get about 110K free and if you have a 512K expander, you get about 620K free.
 +
 +The "shutdown" routine doesn't actually have very much to do.  Basically, it
 +just zeros out the common code.  I did this so if you called the sort routine
 +from BASIC direct input mode, you would not get a "syntax error" from BASIC
 +trying to interpret the garbage left behind.  Now, when BASIC encounters a
 +zero, it stops interpreting.
 +
 +The "zpload" routine will load the given number of bytes into zero page
 +starting at the given zero page address, from any far pointer address.  It
 +doesn't matter whether the far address is in internal or expansion memory; the
 +operation is the same.  This is the level of software that makes accessing the
 +different types of memory transparent to the user.  To load from RAM0, true
 +RAM0 is switched into context (did I mention that the package is meant to
 +execute with MMU configuration $0E in context - this configuration gives RAM0
 +from $0000 to $BFFF, the kernel ROM from $C000 to $FFFF and the I/O space on
 +top of the kernel ROM from $D000 to $DFFF - I call this the SYS or SYS0 bank)
 +and the transfer is done with a loop.  For a zpload from RAM1, a common code
 +routine is called that switches RAM1 into context, copies in a loop, and then
 +switches back to SYS0.  For an expansion memory pointer, the REU Controller
 +registers are set up and the transfer is performed.  The package will work
 +with whatever Zero Page is in context (with MMU register $D507), since it is
 +convenient to use your own zero page in your programs.  For transfers of less
 +than about 16 bytes, internal memory is faster, and for longer transfers,
 +expansion memory turns out to be faster.  For really long transfers (say, 80
 +bytes), using the expansion memory is MUCH faster (a marginal cost of one
 +microsecond per byte as opposed to nine).  The "[zp1]" parameter is unaltered
 +by this call, but the register values are quite changed.  The "(zw1)"
 +parameter area is also left untouched.
 +
 +The "zpstore" routine works the same as "zpload" except it stores to the far
 +memory from zero page.
 +
 +The "fetch" routine fetches the given number of bytes from a far address into
 +the RAM0 bank (not SYS0) at the given address.  Unlike the zero page load
 +routine, you can transfer up to 64K of memory with this routine.  Again, the
 +type of memory to be fetched is transparent to the user.  For an internal
 +memory fetch, the transfers are performed in 256 byte chunks.  This makes the
 +implementation easier.  For each byte transferred from RAM1, RAM1 is switched
 +in and then RAM0 is switched in, so the transfer is not extremely efficient.
 +For the expansion memory, the REU Controller is set up and then the entire
 +transfer (up to 64K) is performed at a rate of 1 Meg/second.  This is
 +considerably faster than internal memory fetching.  This routine handles a
 +transfer length of 0 bytes properly.  The "zp1" and "zw1" parameters are
 +returned unaltered, but again, the registers are smashed.
 +
 +The "stash" routine operates the same as fetch, except that the data is
 +transferred from the near ("zw1") address to the far ("zp1") address.
 +
 +The "malloc" routine attempts to find a chunk of contiguous memory of the
 +given length to allocate to you.  If it can find one, it returns the far
 +pointer to it in the "[zp1]" parameter.  If it cannot find one, it returns
 +with the carry flag set.  This routine clobbers the registers.
 +
 +The "free" routine returns to the pool of free memory the chunk of memory
 +specified by the far pointer and length parameters.  This routine clobbers the
 +"[zp1]" parameter and the registers.  The carry flag is always cleared upon
 +return, since the routine does not (currently) check for any errors.
 +
 +3.2. MEMORY ALLOCATE AND FREE
 +
 +The malloc and free routines maintain a linked list of free memory chunks.  A
 +free memory chunk is described by a five byte structure that is at the
 +beginning of the chunk.  The first three bytes are a far pointer to the next
 +free memory chunk and the following two bytes give the total length of the
 +chunk.  The structure is thus:
 +
 +  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---...
 +  | Next     | Next     | Next     | Chunk    | Chunk    |
 +  | chunk    | chunk    | chunk    | length   | length    garbage
 +  | low addr | high addr| bank num | low      | high     |
 +  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+---...
 +    chunk+0    chunk+1    chunk+2    chunk+3    chunk+4
 +
 +All of the free (and allocated) memory chunks are always aligned on an eight
 +byte boundary.  This guarantees that no matter what happens, there will always
 +be at least eight bytes available in each free memory chunk to hold the free
 +chunk descriptor information.  Thus, if you were to make a request for three
 +bytes, the system would give you eight, and when you request to free those
 +three bytes, the system would automatically free eight.  This can lead to some
 +some wasted space when using small structures.
 +
 +The memory chunks are kept in order of "increasing" address.  I say
 +"increasing" because while the chunks within a bank are in increasing address
 +order, the system considers bank number $87 (expansion bank 7) to be lower
 +than bank number $3F (RAM0).  This anomaly makes the system allocate its
 +external memory before allocating internal memory.  This is good since
 +external memory generally works faster than internal memory.
 +
 +This memory is allocated first since the malloc routine uses a first-find
 +algorithm for searching for a sufficient free memory chunk.  It stops
 +searching when it finds a free memory chunk large enough to satisfy the user's
 +request.  If the free chunk is exactly the same size as the request, the free
 +chunk is unlinked from the free chunk list and the pointer is returned.  If
 +the free chunk is larger than the requested size, it is split up.  A pointer
 +to the top N bytes of the chunk is retured to the user and the size of the
 +free chunk is reduced by N.  The memory is allocated from the top of the chunk
 +to make it so no linking and unlinking has to take place in this case.
 +
 +The free routine is more complicated than the allocate routine since free has
 +to deal with more cases.  Free has to search through the linked list of free
 +memory chunks to find the two chunks that straddle the chunk to be freed.
 +Free attempts to coalesce (merge) the new chunk with the previous chunk and
 +with the next chunk in order to end up with the largest free chunk that it
 +can under the circumstances.  Large free chunks are good since they can be
 +used for larger requests.  Two chunks can be coalesced if they are
 +side-by-side in memory (zero bytes apart) and on the same bank.  Note that
 +chunks on different banks cannot be coalesced together, so the largest
 +possible free chunk is 64K in length.  To coalesce them, the size of the first
 +one is increased by the size of the second one and the pointer to the second
 +one is forgotten.
 +
 +Note that this scheme works differently from the dynamic allocation scheme
 +that BASIC uses for its strings.  BASIC does not attempt to coalesce together
 +(or even re-use) freed chunks; it relies upon garbage collecting to get rid of
 +the free chunks.  The scheme implemented here is more static (interesting word
 +to choose) in that once you are allocated a chunk, that chunk is pinned to
 +that address and will never move.  This static organization can lead to the
 +problem of memory fragmentation, where lots of memory can be free but is in
 +un-coalescable chunks that are too small to be useful.  Oh well.  I don't
 +think that it is really a problem for storing lines of text as individual
 +records, and it is no problem at all for a program that always uses fixed size
 +records.
 +
 +3.3. THE SORT UTILITY
 +
 +The sort utility makes full use of the capabilites of the package.  First it
 +reads in the input file one line at a time and stores the lines in a linked
 +list as individual records of the form:
 +
 +  +--------+--------+--------+--------+-------...-----+--------+
 +  | Next   | Next   | Next   | Total  |                      |
 +  | line   | line   | line   | record |  characters   | .byte  |
 +  | ptr    | ptr    | ptr    | length |  of the line  |    $00 |
 +  | low    | high   | bank          |                      |
 +  +--------+--------+--------+--------+-------...-----+--------+
 +    line+0   line+1   line+2   line+3     line+4        line+?
 +
 +Note that these are variable length records; each record is only as long as it
 +has to be.  The total record length is stored at the front of the record.  In
 +order to read a line into a processing buffer, a "zpload" is done that reads
 +the first four bytes of the record in order to get the length of the record.
 +Then the entire record can be fetched since its length is known at that time.
 +Each record ends with a $00 byte to simplify the string comparison
 +subroutine.
 +
 +The line list is maintained in alphabetical order (actually, reverse
 +alphabetical order; below).  When a new line is read in from the input file,
 +the line list is searched for the two other lines whose values straddle the
 +value of the new line.  The line is then linked in at that position in the
 +list.  No other lines have to be moved around since pointers are used to
 +maintain the order of the list.  In order for a line already in the list to be
 +compared with the new line, the old line has to be fetched from far memory
 +(using the zpload + fetch scheme above) into a work buffer in the SYS0 bank.
 +On average, half of the existing list will have to be searched in this way in
 +order to find the correct spot to insert the new line.
 +
 +After the position for the new line is found, space for the line is allocated
 +by calling "malloc" and then the data is stored from the work buffer it was
 +read into to far memory.  The zpload and zpstore routines are used to modify
 +the pointers to link in the new line.  A number of pointer manipulations are
 +also required on the zero page varialbles.
 +
 +If the line list was generated in forward alphabetic order, then the utility
 +would achieve its WORST performance when the input file was already mostly or
 +partially sorted.  This is because when each line is read, if it comes after
 +most or all of the other lines, the most or all of the line list would have to
 +be searched to find the final resting position for the new line.  This would
 +be unacceptable and extremely wasteful.  A better scheme is to generate the
 +line list in reverse alphabetic order.  Then, when a "higher valued" line is
 +read in, its correct position would be at or near the top of the list, so
 +it would only have to be compared against a few of the lines already on the
 +list.  In the case of an input file that is already in pretty much random
 +order, it makes no difference whether the list is in forward or reverse
 +order.
 +
 +Since the list is generated in reverse order, it must be reveresed again
 +before writing it to the output file, since the user would want it to be in
 +forward order (and since this is the order that can be most easily sorted
 +again later).  A clever little subroutine is called that reverses the order of
 +the list.  It only has to make use of zpload and zpstore to read/change the
 +first few bytes of each record, since it is not concerned with the data
 +contents of each record.
 +
 +Although this is not strictly necessary, all of the records in the line list
 +are freed before the sort utilitiy exits.  This is a good practice, and would
 +be necessary if the program were to continue to do useful work after writing
 +the sorted file to output.  A pointer is stepped through the list (starting
 +from the head pointer) and the space for each line is deallocated by calling
 +free, after determining the size of the record by reading the first few bytes
 +of it.  Since the list will be in (pretty much) random order (of addresses),
 +the deallocation mechanism does not achieve its best performance.
 +
 +A convenient jump table is set up at the start of the code to make it easier
 +for you to link your own programs to the package.  Make sure that MMU
 +configuration value $0E is in effect before calling any of the routines.  You
 +may have to muck with the code a little bit to get it to work for you.
 +
 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 +
 +4. FOR THE EXPERT HACKER
 +
 +You get to see the code that actually implements the memory package and the
 +sort utility.  I have it here in a special form; each code line is preceeded
 +by a few special characters and the line number.  The line number is there to
 +allow me to refer to specific lines, and the special characters are there to
 +allow you to easily extract the assembler code from the rest of this magazine
 +(and all of my ugly comments).  On a Unix system, all you have to do is
 +execute the following command line (substitute filenames as appropriate):
 +
 +grep '^\.%....\!' Hack2 | sed 's/^.%....\!..//' | sed 's/.%....\!//' >sort.asm
 +
 +Dontcha just love those Unix commands!  Here is the assembler code:
 +
 +.%0001!  ;Sort utility using dynamic memory allocation with expanded memory
 +.%0002!  ;written 92/04/22 by Craig Bruce for C= Hacking Net Magazine
 +.%0003!  ;--------------------------------------------------------------------
 +
 +This program is written for the Buddy assembler.  Like most assemblers, it
 +needs a few directives to start off, so here they are.  Note that my comments
 +come BEFORE the section of code that I am commenting on.
 +
 +.%0004!  .mem
 +.%0005!  .bank 15
 +.%0006!  .org $1300
 +.%0007!
 +.%0008!  ;*** global declarations
 +.%0009!
 +
 +Here are the zero page locations that the package uses for its own purposes.
 +I stuck the sysWork variable over the BASIC graphics command parameters since
 +it seems like a good place.  It requires 16 bytes and is used by most of the
 +routines for temporary storage.  "temp1" is used for "very" temporary
 +storage.
 +
 +.%0010!  zp1 = $fa
 +.%0011!  temp1 = $fd
 +.%0012!  zw1 = $fe
 +.%0013!  sysWork = $80    ;16-byte block
 +.%0014!
 +
 +These are the non-zero page storage locations.  The common code buffer pretty
 +much has to be at $200 since that is (about) the only free section of memory
 +below address $0400 (in the common memory range).
 +
 +.%0015!  comCodeBuffer = $200
 +.%0016!  workBuffer = $b00
 +.%0017!
 +
 +These are the MMU configuration register values and some important I/O
 +addresses.
 +
 +.%0018!  bkSys = $0e
 +.%0019!  bkKernel = $00
 +.%0020!  bkSelect = $ff00
 +.%0021!  bkSelectRam0 = $ff01
 +.%0022!  bkSelectRam1 = $ff02
 +.%0023!  bkRam0 = $3f
 +.%0024!  bkRam1 = $7f
 +.%0025!  bkExp0 = $80
 +.%0026!  bkNull = $ff
 +.%0027!  zpSelect = $d507
 +.%0028!  reu = $df00
 +.%0029!  vic = $d000
 +.%0030!
 +.%0031!  errInsufficientMemory = 1
 +.%0032!
 +.%0033!  ;*** jump to main routine
 +.%0034!
 +.%0035!     jmp main
 +.%0036!
 +.%0037!  ;*** jump table
 +.%0038!
 +
 +Here's that jump table.
 +
 +.%0039!  startup   jmp internStartup
 +.%0040!  shutdown  jmp internShutdown
 +.%0041!  zpload    jmp internZpLoad
 +.%0042!  zpstore   jmp internZpStore
 +.%0043!  fetch     jmp internRam0Fetch
 +.%0044!  stash     jmp internRam0Stash
 +.%0045!  malloc    jmp internAlloc
 +.%0046!  free      jmp internFree
 +.%0047!
 +.%0048!  ;*** storage
 +.%0049!
 +
 +Here are some useful storage locations.  "errno" contains the code for the
 +error encountered in a routine if the routine exits with the carry flag set
 +(and it is supposed to be cleared for OK).  "nExpBanks" gives the number of
 +expansion memory banks, and "freeMemory" gives the number of bytes currently
 +free in the system.  Both of these are useful status values and can be read
 +directly.
 +
 +.%0050!  errno      .buf 1
 +.%0051!  nExpBanks  .buf 1
 +.%0052!  mallocHead .buf 3
 +.%0053!  freeMemory .buf 3
 +.%0054!
 +.%0055!  ;***startup
 +.%0056!
 +
 +This routine gets the ball rolling.  It clears the status register in case you
 +start up the system with the decimal mode flag set or interrupts disabled.
 +
 +.%0057!  internStartup = *
 +.%0058!     lda #0
 +.%0059!     pha
 +.%0060!     plp
 +.%0061!     lda #bkSys
 +.%0062!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0063!     jsr installCommonCode
 +.%0064!     jsr sniffREU
 +.%0065!     jsr initDynamicMemory
 +.%0066!     rts
 +.%0067!
 +
 +And this routine stops the ball from rolling.  I fill the BASIC command line
 +buffer with zeros to stop that syntax error thing.
 +
 +.%0068!  internShutdown = *
 +.%0069!     ldx #0
 +.%0070!     lda #0
 +.%0071!  -  sta $200,x
 +.%0072!     inx
 +.%0073!     cpx #comCodeEnd-comCodeStart
 +.%0074!     bne -
 +.%0075!     lda #bkKernel
 +.%0076!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0077!     rts
 +.%0078!
 +.%0079!  ;***install common code
 +.%0080!
 +
 +This routine copies the common code subroutines into the common code buffer
 +(at $0200).
 +
 +.%0081!  installCommonCode = *
 +.%0082!     ldx #0
 +.%0083!  -  lda comCodeStart,x
 +.%0084!     sta comCodeBuffer,x
 +.%0085!     inx
 +.%0086!     cpx #comCodeEnd-comCodeStart
 +.%0087!     bcc -
 +.%0088!     rts
 +.%0089!
 +.%0090!  ;--------------------------------------------------------------------
 +.%0091!  ;***common code
 +.%0092!
 +
 +And this is the common code.  It contains four subroutines for accessing RAM1
 +(and the zero page routines are used for RAM0 as well).
 +
 +.%0093!  comCodeStart = *
 +.%0094!
 +
 +Selects the MMU configuration according to the bank number and copies the
 +number of bytes required for a zpload.  It exits by restoring the SYS bank.
 +This is used only for internal memory zploads.
 +
 +.%0095!  comZpLoad = *
 +.%0096!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0097!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0098!     sty temp1
 +.%0099!     ldy #0
 +.%0100!  -  lda (zp1),y
 +.%0101!     sta 0,x
 +.%0102!     inx
 +.%0103!     iny
 +.%0104!     cpy temp1
 +.%0105!     bcc -
 +.%0106!     lda #bkSys
 +.%0107!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0108!     rts
 +.%0109!
 +
 +Pretty much the same as zpload.
 +
 +.%0110!  comZpStore = *
 +.%0111!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0112!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0113!     sty temp1
 +.%0114!     ldy #0
 +.%0115!  -  lda 0,x
 +.%0116!     sta (zp1),y
 +.%0117!     inx
 +.%0118!     iny
 +.%0119!     cpy temp1
 +.%0120!     bcc -
 +.%0121!     lda #bkSys
 +.%0122!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0123!     rts
 +.%0124!
 +
 +As the name suggests, this copies from RAM1 to RAM0.  Only .Y number of bytes
 +are copied, and if .Y=0, 256 bytes are copied.  You'll notice that the MMU
 +configurations are switched between for every byte copied.  This is not the
 +most efficient scheme, but it suffices.  The MMU preconfiguration registers
 +are used and the value that BASIC put in them are assumed to still be there.
 +
 +.%0125!  comCopyRam1ToRam0 = *
 +.%0126!     dey
 +.%0127!     beq +
 +.%0128!  -  sta bkSelectRam1
 +.%0129!     lda (zp1),y
 +.%0130!     sta bkSelectRam0
 +.%0131!     sta (zw1),y
 +.%0132!     dey
 +.%0133!     bne -
 +.%0134!  +  sta bkSelectRam1
 +.%0135!     lda (zp1),y
 +.%0136!     sta bkSelectRam0
 +.%0137!     sta (zw1),y
 +.%0138!     lda #bkSys
 +.%0139!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0140!     rts
 +.%0141!
 +
 +The opposite direction.
 +
 +.%0142!  comCopyRam0ToRam1 = *
 +.%0143!     dey
 +.%0144!     beq +
 +.%0145!  -  sta bkSelectRam0
 +.%0146!     lda (zw1),y
 +.%0147!     sta bkSelectRam1
 +.%0148!     sta (zp1),y
 +.%0149!     dey
 +.%0150!     bne -
 +.%0151!  +  sta bkSelectRam0
 +.%0152!     lda (zw1),y
 +.%0153!     sta bkSelectRam1
 +.%0154!     sta (zp1),y
 +.%0155!     lda #bkSys
 +.%0156!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0157!     rts
 +.%0158!
 +
 +The end of the common code.  The length of the common code is determined by
 +subtracting the end address from the start address.
 +
 +.%0159!  comCodeEnd = *
 +.%0160!
 +.%0161!  ;--------------------------------------------------------------------
 +.%0162!  ;*** zpload( [zp1]=Source, .X=ZpDest, .Y=Length )
 +.%0163!
 +
 +The actual zpload routine.  It dispatches to the common code routine if
 +internal memory is specified by the far pointer, or falls through to REU code
 +if expansion memory is specified.
 +
 +.%0164!  internZpLoad = *
 +.%0165!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0166!     bmi +
 +.%0167!     jmp comZpLoad-comCodeStart+comCodeBuffer
 +.%0168!  +  sty reu+7
 +.%0169!     ldy #$91
 +.%0170!
 +
 +Sets up the REU Controller registers for the parameters of the transfer.  Note
 +that the value of the zero page address is not assumed to be absolute $0000
 +but is taken from the zero page selection register of the MMU.  The REU
 +Controller does not use the MMU for decoding zero page and stack page
 +addresses; it accesses the absolute memory directly.
 +
 +.%0171!  zeroPageReuOp = *
 +.%0172!     sta reu+6
 +.%0173!     stx reu+2
 +.%0174!     lda zpSelect
 +.%0175!     sta reu+3
 +.%0176!     lda zp1
 +.%0177!     sta reu+4
 +.%0178!     lda zp1+1
 +.%0179!     sta reu+5
 +.%0180!     lda #0
 +.%0181!     sta reu+8
 +
 +Here the system clock speed is put into Slow mode while the transfer occurs
 +and is then restored.  This is necessary.
 +
 +.%0182!     lda vic+$30
 +.%0183!     ldx #$00
 +.%0184!     stx vic+$30
 +.%0185!     sty reu+1
 +.%0186!     sta vic+$30
 +.%0187!     rts
 +.%0188!
 +.%0189!  ;*** zpstore( .X=ZpSource, [zp1]=Dest, .Y=Length )
 +.%0190!
 +
 +Pretty much the same as the zpload routine, except that a command code for the
 +REU Controller is different (specifying an internal to expansion memory
 +transfer).  The REU code in the zpload routine is called.
 +
 +.%0191!  internZpStore = *
 +.%0192!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0193!     bmi +
 +.%0194!     jmp comZpStore-comCodeStart+comCodeBuffer
 +.%0195!  +  sty reu+7
 +.%0196!     ldy #$90
 +.%0197!     jmp zeroPageReuOp
 +.%0198!
 +.%0199!  ;--------------------------------------------------------------------
 +.%0200!  ;*** fetch( [zp1]=FarSource, (zw1)=Ram0Dest, .AY=Length )
 +.%0201!
 +
 +Some working storage locations are necessary for this routine, since it is
 +designed to copy data a page at a time.  The source (zp1+1) and destination
 +(zw1+1) page addresses are saved and later restored because this routine
 +alters them while copying.  If the far address is in expansion memory, this
 +routine dispatches to the REU fetch/stash code.
 +
 +.%0202!  fetchLength = sysWork
 +.%0203!  fetchSaveSource = sysWork+2
 +.%0204!  fetchSaveDest = sysWork+3
 +.%0205!
 +.%0206!  internRam0Fetch = *
 +.%0207!     ldx zp1+2
 +.%0208!     bpl +
 +.%0209!     ldx #$91
 +.%0210!     jmp doReu
 +
 +If the transfer is less than one page long, it can be done by calling the
 +fetchPage code directly.  Otherwise, the long fetch code has to be called.
 +
 +.%0211!  +  cpy #0
 +.%0212!     bne fetchLong
 +.%0213!     tay
 +.%0214!     bne fetchPage
 +.%0215!     rts
 +.%0216!
 +
 +If the (internal) page to be fetched is on RAM1, the common code routine is
 +called; otherwise, the copy is done here by switching RAM0 into context.  We
 +can copy between RAM0 locations without switching contexts for every byte.
 +
 +.%0217!     fetchPage = *
 +.%0218!     cpx #bkRam0
 +.%0219!     beq +
 +.%0220!     jmp comCopyRam1ToRam0-comCodeStart+comCodeBuffer
 +.%0221!  +  stx bkSelect
 +.%0222!     dey
 +.%0223!     beq +
 +.%0224!  -  lda (zp1),y
 +.%0225!     sta (zw1),y
 +.%0226!     dey
 +.%0227!     bne -
 +.%0228!  +  lda (zp1),y
 +.%0229!     sta (zw1),y
 +.%0230!     lda #bkSys
 +.%0231!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0232!     rts
 +.%0233!
 +
 +This is called for long (>=256 byte) (internal) fetches.  It calls the
 +fetchPage code repeatedly, after incrementing the source and destination page
 +numbers.  The transfer length is decremented until it is less than 256 bytes.
 +
 +.%0234!     fetchLong = *
 +.%0235!     sta fetchLength
 +.%0236!     sty fetchLength+1
 +.%0237!     lda zp1+1
 +.%0238!     sta fetchSaveSource
 +.%0239!     lda zw1+1
 +.%0240!     sta fetchSaveDest
 +.%0241!     lda fetchLength+1
 +.%0242!     beq fetchLongExit
 +.%0243!  -  ldx zp1+2
 +.%0244!     ldy #0
 +.%0245!     jsr fetchPage
 +.%0246!     inc zp1+1
 +.%0247!     inc zw1+1
 +.%0248!     dec fetchLength+1
 +.%0249!     bne -
 +.%0250!
 +.%0251!     fetchLongExit = *
 +
 +This fetches the last chunk of less than 256 bytes and then restores the zp1
 +and zw1 parameters to what they were before this routine was called.
 +
 +.%0252!     ldy fetchLength
 +.%0253!     beq +
 +.%0254!     ldx zp1+2
 +.%0255!     jsr fetchPage
 +.%0256!  +  lda fetchSaveSource
 +.%0257!     sta zp1+1
 +.%0258!     lda fetchSaveDest
 +.%0259!     sta zw1+1
 +.%0260!     rts
 +.%0261!
 +.%0262!  ;*** stash( (zw1)=Ram0Source, [zp1]=FarDest, .AY=length )
 +.%0263!
 +
 +Stash has exactly the same structure as fetch.
 +
 +.%0264!  stashLength = sysWork
 +.%0265!  stashSaveSource = sysWork+2
 +.%0266!  stashSaveDest = sysWork+3
 +.%0267!
 +.%0268!  internRam0Stash = *
 +.%0269!     ldx zp1+2
 +.%0270!     bpl +
 +.%0271!     ldx #$90
 +.%0272!     jmp doReu
 +.%0273!  +  cpy #0
 +.%0274!     bne stashLong
 +.%0275!     tay
 +.%0276!     bne stashPage
 +.%0277!     rts
 +.%0278!
 +.%0279!     stashPage = *
 +.%0280!     cpx #bkRam0
 +.%0281!     beq +
 +.%0282!     jmp comCopyRam0ToRam1-comCodeStart+comCodeBuffer
 +.%0283!  +  stx bkSelect
 +.%0284!     dey
 +.%0285!     beq +
 +.%0286!  -  lda (zw1),y
 +.%0287!     sta (zp1),y
 +.%0288!     dey
 +.%0289!     bne -
 +.%0290!  +  lda (zw1),y
 +.%0291!     sta (zp1),y
 +.%0292!     lda #bkSys
 +.%0293!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0294!     rts
 +.%0295!
 +.%0296!     stashLong = *
 +.%0297!     sta stashLength
 +.%0298!     sty stashLength+1
 +.%0299!     lda zw1+1
 +.%0300!     sta stashSaveSource
 +.%0301!     lda zp1+1
 +.%0302!     sta stashSaveDest
 +.%0303!     lda stashLength+1
 +.%0304!     beq stashLongExit
 +.%0305!  -  ldx zp1+2
 +.%0306!     ldy #0
 +.%0307!     jsr stashPage
 +.%0308!     inc zp1+1
 +.%0309!     inc zw1+1
 +.%0310!     dec stashLength+1
 +.%0311!     bne -
 +.%0312!
 +.%0313!     stashLongExit = *
 +.%0314!     ldy stashLength
 +.%0315!     beq +
 +.%0316!     ldx zp1+2
 +.%0317!     jsr stashPage
 +.%0318!  +  lda stashSaveSource
 +.%0319!     sta zw1+1
 +.%0320!     lda stashSaveDest
 +.%0321!     sta zp1+1
 +.%0322!     rts
 +.%0323!
 +.%0324!  ;*** ram0 load/store(.X) expn memory [zp1] <- -> (zw1) for .AY bytes
 +.%0325!
 +
 +This is the code that does the fetching and stashing from/to expansion
 +memory.  The only difference between a fetch and a stash is the REU Controller
 +command code, so that is an input parameter.  The REU Controller registers are
 +set up, the clock is slowed, the transfer happens, and then the clock speed is
 +restored.  The bulk transfer is done entirely by the REU Controller.
 +Interestingly, it would have been faster to transfer the internal memory to
 +expansion memory and then fetch it back again in order to achieve an internal
 +memory transfer (if you have an REU), but I didn't bother with that.
 +
 +.%0326!  doReu = *
 +.%0327!     sta reu+7
 +.%0328!     sty reu+8
 +.%0329!     lda zw1
 +.%0330!     ldy zw1+1
 +.%0331!     sta reu+2
 +.%0332!     sty reu+3
 +.%0333!     lda zp1
 +.%0334!     ldy zp1+1
 +.%0335!     sta reu+4
 +.%0336!     sty reu+5
 +.%0337!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0338!     sta reu+6
 +.%0339!     ldy vic+$30
 +.%0340!     lda #0
 +.%0341!     sta vic+$30
 +.%0342!     stx reu+1
 +.%0343!     sty vic+$30
 +.%0344!     rts
 +.%0345!
 +.%0346!  ;*** sniffREU - determine number of banks of expansion memory
 +.%0347!
 +
 +The work locations are used to store a string to the first four addresses of
 +each expansion memory bank and then fetch them back again in order to
 +determine whether the bank exists or not.  Expansion bank #0 is also checked
 +after each bank to see if a bank number wrap-around occured.  The
 +"reuSizeLimit" will force this routine to stop searching after that number of
 +banks have been sniffed.  The maximum value is 127, since only bank numbers
 +$80 to $FE are available.  By changing this value, you can stop this package
 +from using expansion memory reserved by another program.  Note that this
 +program uses expansion banks 0 up to but not including "reuSizeLimit".
 +
 +.%0348!  sniffWork1 = sysWork
 +.%0349!  sniffWork2 = sysWork+4
 +.%0350!  reuSizeLimit .byte 127
 +.%0351!
 +.%0352!  sniffREU = *
 +
 +Here I save the data in the memory "beneath" the REU Controller registers.  If
 +there isn't a REU installed, this memory would otherwise be corrupted by I/O
 +addresses bleeding through to the underlying RAM.
 +
 +.%0353!     lda #bkRam0
 +.%0354!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0355!     ldx #$a
 +.%0356!  -  lda reu,x
 +.%0357!     sta workBuffer,x
 +.%0358!     dex
 +.%0359!     bpl -
 +.%0360!     lda #bkSys
 +.%0361!     sta bkSelect
 +
 +Here I initialize the configuration REU Controller registers.  They are set
 +only once by this package.
 +
 +.%0362!     lda #$00
 +.%0363!     sta reu+$9
 +.%0364!     sta reu+$a
 +.%0365!     lda reu+$0
 +
 +The three-byte identifier string is copied into the source tag.  The fourth
 +byte will be filled in by the bank number.
 +
 +.%0366!     ldx #2
 +.%0367!  -  lda expRamId,x
 +.%0368!     sta sniffWork1,x
 +.%0369!     dex
 +.%0370!     bpl -
 +
 +Initialization continues.
 +
 +.%0371!     lda #0
 +.%0372!     sta nExpBanks
 +.%0373!     lda #$00
 +.%0374!     ldx #bkExp0
 +.%0375!     sta zp1
 +.%0376!     sta zp1+1
 +.%0377!     stx zp1+2
 +.%0378!
 +
 +This is the main loop.  It tests the current expansion bank and then goes on
 +to the next one if ok.  Otherwise, it stops at the number of okay banks.
 +
 +.%0379!  -  jsr testExpBank
 +.%0380!     bcs +
 +.%0381!     inc nExpBanks
 +.%0382!     inc zp1+2
 +.%0383!     bne -
 +.%0384!  +  lda nExpBanks
 +.%0385!     bne +
 +
 +Restore the underlying RAM contents and exit.
 +
 +.%0386!     lda #bkRam0
 +.%0387!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0388!     ldx #$a
 +.%0389!  -  lda workBuffer,x
 +.%0390!     sta reu,x
 +.%0391!     dex
 +.%0392!     bpl -
 +.%0393!     lda #bkSys
 +.%0394!     sta bkSelect
 +.%0395!  +  rts
 +.%0396!
 +.%0397!  ;*** test expansion bank( [zp1]=BankPtr ) : .CC=ok
 +.%0398!
 +
 +First checks that the maximum number of allowed expansion banks has not been
 +exceeded.  Stores the test string through the bank pointer and then tests to
 +see that the string has been stored correctly and that the string on expansion
 +bank 0 is still ok (it wouldn't be ok if a wrap-around occured).
 +
 +.%0399!  testExpBank = *
 +.%0400!     lda nExpBanks
 +.%0401!     cmp reuSizeLimit
 +.%0402!     bcc +
 +.%0403!     rts
 +.%0404!  +  lda zp1+2
 +.%0405!     sta sniffWork1+3
 +.%0406!     ldx #sniffWork1
 +.%0407!     ldy #4
 +.%0408!     jsr zpstore
 +.%0409!     jsr testExpBankInternal  ;test current bank
 +.%0410!     bcs +
 +.%0411!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0412!     pha
 +.%0413!     lda #bkExp0
 +.%0414!     sta zp1+2
 +.%0415!     sta sniffWork1+3
 +.%0416!     jsr testExpBankInternal  ;test expansion bank 0
 +.%0417!     pla
 +.%0418!     sta zp1+2
 +.%0419!  +  rts
 +.%0420!
 +
 +This routine reads the bytes at address [zp1] and makes sure they are the same
 +as the previous routine put there.  On return, the carry flag is set if the
 +string found is not the same as what was previously put out.
 +
 +.%0421!  testExpBankInternal = *
 +.%0422!     lda #$00
 +.%0423!     sta sniffWork2
 +.%0424!     sta sniffWork2+3
 +.%0425!     ldx #sniffWork2
 +.%0426!     ldy #4
 +.%0427!     jsr zpload
 +.%0428!     ldx #3
 +.%0429!  -  lda sniffWork2,x
 +.%0430!     cmp sniffWork1,x
 +.%0431!     bne +
 +.%0432!     dex
 +.%0433!     bpl -
 +.%0434!     clc
 +.%0435!     rts
 +.%0436!  +  sec
 +.%0437!     rts
 +.%0438!
 +
 +This is the three-byte string put into the expansion banks.  The value means
 +"RAM identifier".
 +
 +.%0439!  expRamId   .byte "r"
 +.%0440!             .byte "I"
 +.%0441!             .byte "d"
 +.%0442!
 +.%0443!  ;--------------------------------------------------------------------
 +.%0444!  ;*** initialize dynamically allocated memory() : nExpBanks
 +.%0445!
 +
 +This routine calls "free" to initialize the free memory on each existing
 +bank.  RAM0 is set to be free from $4000 to the top of BASIC memory, so you'll
 +have to change the "ram0FreeStartPage" parameter if you want to have a program
 +that occupies memory higher than this address.  RAM1 is declared to be free
 +from $0400 to $FEFF
 +
 +.%0446!  ram0FreeStartPage .byte $40
 +.%0447!  ram1FreeStartPage .byte $04
 +.%0448!  ram1FreeLength    .byte 256-1-$04
 +.%0449!
 +.%0450!  currentExpBank = sysWork+$f
 +.%0451!
 +.%0452!  initDynamicMemory = *
 +
 +Set the memory allocation first free chunk pointer to Null and set the number
 +of bytes of free memory to 0.
 +
 +.%0453!     ldx #2
 +.%0454!  -  lda #$00
 +.%0455!     sta freeMemory,x
 +.%0456!     lda #$ff
 +.%0457!     sta mallocHead,x
 +.%0458!     dex
 +.%0459!     bpl -
 +
 +Determine the length of free memory on RAM0 and free the memory.
 +
 +.%0460!     sec
 +.%0461!     lda $1212   ;top of BASIC program Low
 +.%0462!     beq +
 +.%0463!     clc
 +.%0464!  +  lda $1213   ;top of BASIC program High
 +.%0465!     sbc ram0FreeStartPage
 +.%0466!     tay
 +.%0467!     lda ram0FreeStartPage
 +.%0468!     ldx #bkRam0
 +.%0469!     jsr initInternalBankMalloc
 +
 +Free the memory of RAM1
 +
 +.%0470!     lda ram1FreeStartPage
 +.%0471!     ldy ram1FreeLength
 +.%0472!     ldx #bkRam1
 +.%0473!     jsr initInternalBankMalloc
 +.%0474!
 +
 +For each existing expansion bank, free it from addresses $0000 to $FFF7.  You
 +cannot free all 65536 bytes since this would cause the length of the free
 +chunk to be set to $0000 which would cause problems later on.  $FFF8 bytes are
 +set to free since then length has to be a multiple of eight bytes.
 +
 +.%0475!     lda #0
 +.%0476!     sta currentExpBank
 +.%0477!  -  lda currentExpBank
 +.%0478!     cmp nExpBanks
 +.%0479!     bcs +
 +.%0480!     ora #bkExp0
 +.%0481!     sta zp1+2
 +.%0482!     lda #$00
 +.%0483!     sta zp1
 +.%0484!     sta zp1+1
 +.%0485!     lda #$f8
 +.%0486!     ldy #$ff
 +.%0487!     jsr free
 +.%0488!     inc currentExpBank
 +.%0489!     bne -
 +.%0490!  +  rts
 +.%0491!
 +
 +This routine is called for freeing banks RAM0 and RAM1.  It does nothing other
 +than set parameters and is put in for convenience.
 +
 +.%0492!  initInternalBankMalloc = *
 +.%0493!     sta zp1+1
 +.%0494!     stx zp1+2
 +.%0495!     lda #0
 +.%0496!     sta zp1
 +.%0497!     jmp free
 +.%0498!
 +.%0499!  ;--------------------------------------------------------------------
 +.%0500!  ;*** malloc( .AY=Bytes ) : [zp1]=FarPointer
 +.%0501!
 +
 +One of the biggies.  The "MemNextPtr" and "MemLength" variables are used to
 +store the information at the start of the current free memory chunk.  "Length"
 +is used to hold the length input parameter and "Q" is the pointer to the
 +previous free memory chunk whereas "zp1" is used to point to the current free
 +chunk.  I prefix these variables with "malloc" to avoid naming collisions with
 +other routines.  The concept of local variables might be a nice thing for
 +future assemblers to have.
 +
 +.%0502!  mallocMemNextPtr = sysWork
 +.%0503!  mallocMemLength  = sysWork+3
 +.%0504!  mallocLength     = sysWork+5
 +.%0505!  mallocQ          = sysWork+7
 +.%0506!
 +.%0507!  internAlloc = *
 +
 +Align the number of bytes requested to an even multiple of eight.
 +
 +.%0508!     clc
 +.%0509!     adc #7
 +.%0510!     bcc +
 +.%0511!     iny
 +.%0512!  +  and #$f8
 +.%0513!     sta mallocLength
 +.%0514!     sty mallocLength+1
 +
 +Set the current free chunk pointer to the first free chunk and set Q to Null.
 +
 +.%0515!     ldx #2
 +.%0516!  -  lda mallocHead,x
 +.%0517!     sta zp1,x
 +.%0518!     lda #$ff
 +.%0519!     sta mallocQ,x
 +.%0520!     dex
 +.%0521!     bpl -
 +.%0522!
 +
 +Search for a free chunk that is long enough to satisfy the request.
 +
 +.%0523!     mallocLook = *
 +
 +If the current free chunk pointer is Null, then we are S.O.L. (Out of Luck)
 +since that means we have exhausted the list of free chunks and have to report
 +that insufficient free memory could be found.
 +
 +.%0524!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0525!     cmp #$ff
 +.%0526!     bne +
 +.%0527!
 +.%0528!     mallocErrorExit = *
 +.%0529!     lda #$ff   ;return a Null pointer
 +.%0530!     sta zp1
 +.%0531!     sta zp1+1
 +.%0532!     sta zp1+2
 +.%0533!     lda #errInsufficientMemory
 +.%0534!     sta errno
 +.%0535!     sec
 +.%0536!     rts
 +.%0537!
 +
 +Fetch the header information of the current free chunk and check the length.
 +If the current free chunk is not large enough, then we set the Q pointer to
 +the current pointer, and take the new value for the current pointer from the
 +header of the current free chunk (mallocMemNextPtr) and then continue
 +searching.
 +
 +.%0538!  +  ldx #mallocMemNextPtr
 +.%0539!     ldy #5
 +.%0540!     jsr zpload
 +.%0541!     lda mallocMemLength
 +.%0542!     cmp mallocLength
 +.%0543!     lda mallocMemLength+1
 +.%0544!     sbc mallocLength+1
 +.%0545!     bcs mallocGotBlock
 +.%0546!     ldx #2
 +.%0547!  -  lda zp1,x
 +.%0548!     sta mallocQ,x
 +.%0549!     lda mallocMemNextPtr,x
 +.%0550!     sta zp1,x
 +.%0551!     dex
 +.%0552!     bpl -
 +.%0553!     jmp mallocLook
 +.%0554!
 +
 +Now, we've found a block that is large enough.
 +
 +.%0555!     mallocGotBlock = *
 +.%0556!     sec
 +
 +Subtract the number of bytes requested from the total number of bytes free.
 +
 +.%0557!     lda freeMemory
 +.%0558!     sbc mallocLength
 +.%0559!     sta freeMemory
 +.%0560!     lda freeMemory+1
 +.%0561!     sbc mallocLength+1
 +.%0562!     sta freeMemory+1
 +.%0563!     bcs +
 +.%0564!     dec freeMemory+2
 +
 +If the size of the current free chunk is exactly the same as the number of
 +bytes requested, then branch ahead.
 +
 +.%0565!  +  lda mallocMemLength
 +.%0566!     cmp mallocLength
 +.%0567!     bne +
 +.%0568!     lda mallocMemLength+1
 +.%0569!     sbc mallocLength+1
 +.%0570!     beq mallocTakeWholeBlock
 +
 +Subtract the number of bytes requested from the length of the current free
 +chunk and then write the updated header back to the current free chunk.
 +
 +.%0571!  +  sec
 +.%0572!     lda mallocMemLength
 +.%0573!     sbc mallocLength
 +.%0574!     sta mallocMemLength
 +.%0575!     lda mallocMemLength+1
 +.%0576!     sbc mallocLength+1
 +.%0577!     sta mallocMemLength+1
 +.%0578!     ldx #mallocMemNextPtr
 +.%0579!     ldy #5
 +.%0580!     jsr zpstore
 +
 +Add the length of the free chunk to the pointer to the start of the free chunk
 +to determine the address of the memory that has just been allocated.  Then
 +exit, returning this address.
 +
 +.%0581!     clc
 +.%0582!     lda zp1
 +.%0583!     adc mallocMemLength
 +.%0584!     sta zp1
 +.%0585!     lda zp1+1
 +.%0586!     adc mallocMemLength+1
 +.%0587!     sta zp1+1
 +.%0588!     clc
 +.%0589!     rts
 +.%0590!
 +
 +Here, the size of the free chunk is exactly the same size as the request, so
 +the entire block has to be allocated and thus removed from the free chunk
 +list.  This is why the Q pointer has been maintained.
 +
 +.%0591!     mallocTakeWholeBlock = *
 +
 +If there is no previous block (Q == Null) then set the free chunk list head
 +pointer to the next free chunk after the current one.  Then exit with the
 +current chunk as the return pointer.
 +
 +.%0592!     lda mallocQ+2
 +.%0593!     cmp #bkNull
 +.%0594!     bne +
 +.%0595!     ldx #2
 +.%0596!  -  lda mallocMemNextPtr,x
 +.%0597!     sta mallocHead,x
 +.%0598!     dex
 +.%0599!     bpl -
 +.%0600!     clc
 +.%0601!     rts
 +
 +If there is an actual previous chunk, then we have to set it to point to the
 +next chunk from the current chunk.  This will unlink the current free chunk
 +from the free chunk list, thereby allocating it.
 +
 +First, we swap the Q and current pointers, since we can only access memory
 +through the "zp1" pointer.
 +
 +.%0602!  +  ldx #2
 +.%0603!  -  lda zp1,x
 +.%0604!     ldy mallocQ,x
 +.%0605!     sta mallocQ,x
 +.%0606!     sty zp1,x
 +.%0607!     dex
 +.%0608!     bpl -
 +
 +Then we set the the NextPointer of the previous free chunk to point to the
 +next free chunk after the current chunk.
 +
 +.%0609!     ldx #mallocMemNextPtr
 +.%0610!     ldy #3
 +.%0611!     jsr zpstore
 +
 +And then we restore the current chunk pointer and return it to the user.
 +
 +.%0612!     ldx #2
 +.%0613!  -  lda mallocQ,x
 +.%0614!     sta zp1,x
 +.%0615!     dex
 +.%0616!     bpl -
 +.%0617!     clc
 +.%0618!     rts
 +.%0619!
 +.%0620!  ;*** free( [zp1]=FarPointer, .AY=Length )  {alters [zp1]}
 +.%0621!
 +
 +And here is the real biggie, since Free is more complicated than Malloc.  The
 +variables are the same as for free, except that "NewPtr" is required to
 +remember the input parameter to new chunk to be freed.
 +
 +.%0622!  freeMemNextPtr = sysWork
 +.%0623!  freeMemLength  = sysWork+3
 +.%0624!  freeLength     = sysWork+5
 +.%0625!  freeNewPtr     = sysWork+7
 +.%0626!  freeQ          = sysWork+10
 +.%0627!
 +.%0628!  internFree = *
 +
 +Again, align the length of the chunk.  The pointer to the start of the new
 +chunk is assumed to be aligned (since malloc only returns aligned chunks).  If
 +the chunk pointer is not aligned, all hell can break loose.
 +
 +.%0629!     clc
 +.%0630!     adc #7
 +.%0631!     bcc +
 +.%0632!     iny
 +.%0633!  +  and #$f8
 +.%0634!     sta freeLength
 +.%0635!     sty freeLength+1
 +
 +Save the new chunk input parameter and set "zp1" for searching the free chunk
 +list.  Also set Q to Null since Q will be used to remember the previous block
 +to "zp1".
 +
 +.%0636!     ldx #2
 +.%0637!  -  lda zp1,x
 +.%0638!     sta freeNewPtr,x
 +.%0639!     lda mallocHead,x
 +.%0640!     sta zp1,x
 +.%0641!     lda #$ff
 +.%0642!     sta freeQ,x
 +.%0643!     dex
 +.%0644!     bpl -
 +.%0645!
 +
 +Search for the two free chunks whose addresses straddle the new free chunk.
 +
 +.%0646!     freeSearchLoop = *
 +
 +If the current free chunk pointer is Null or if the current free chunk's bank
 +number is less than the new chunk's bank number, then we can stop searching;
 +we have found a free chunk that is "higher" than the new chunk, so Q and zp1
 +must straddle the address of the new chunk.  Note that by using a "bcc" on
 +line 652, external memory free chunks will be allocated first.  If I had used
 +a "bcs" there, the internal memory starting from RAM0 would be allocated
 +first.
 +
 +.%0647!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0648!     cmp #$ff
 +.%0649!     beq freeCoalesceQandNew
 +.%0650!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0651!     cmp freeNewPtr+2
 +.%0652!     bcc freeCoalesceQandNew  ;** determines bank order
 +
 +Here we know that the bank number is not "higher", so if the bank numbers are
 +not equal, then we continue searching.  If the bank numbers are equal, we must
 +check the addresses within the bank to see if zp1 is higher than the new
 +chunk.  If so, we stop searching.
 +
 +.%0653!     bne +
 +.%0654!     lda zp1
 +.%0655!     cmp freeNewPtr
 +.%0656!     lda zp1+1
 +.%0657!     sbc freeNewPtr+1
 +.%0658!     bcs freeCoalesceQandNew
 +
 +Here we continue searching.  We stick the current free chunk pointer into Q
 +and get the next free chunk pointer from the current chunk in memory.  Then we
 +go back to the top of the search.
 +
 +.%0659!  +  ldx #freeMemNextPtr
 +.%0660!     ldy #3
 +.%0661!     jsr zpload
 +.%0662!     ldx #2
 +.%0663!  -  lda zp1,x
 +.%0664!     sta freeQ,x
 +.%0665!     lda freeMemNextPtr,x
 +.%0666!     sta zp1,x
 +.%0667!     dex
 +.%0668!     bpl -
 +.%0669!     bmi freeSearchLoop
 +.%0670!
 +
 +Here we know that Q and zp1 straddle the new chunk, and we try to coalesce the
 +new chunk to the Q chunk.
 +
 +.%0671!     freeCoalesceQandNew = *
 +.%0672!     ldx #2
 +.%0673!  -  lda freeQ,x
 +.%0674!     sta zp1,x
 +.%0675!     dex
 +.%0676!     bpl -
 +
 +If the Q pointer is Null, then there is no Q chunk to coalesce with, so the
 +free chunk head pointer is set to point to the new chunk and the new chunk
 +header is set to the size of the new chunk.  Then next pointer for the new
 +chunk is set to what was previously the head pointer.
 +
 +.%0677!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0678!     cmp #$ff
 +.%0679!     bne +
 +.%0680!     ldx #2
 +.%0681!  -  lda mallocHead,x
 +.%0682!     sta freeMemNextPtr,x
 +.%0683!     lda freeNewPtr,x
 +.%0684!     sta mallocHead,x
 +.%0685!     dex
 +.%0686!     bpl -
 +.%0687!     lda freeLength
 +.%0688!     ldy freeLength+1
 +.%0689!     sta freeMemLength
 +.%0690!     sty freeMemLength+1
 +.%0691!     jmp freeCoalesceNewAndP
 +.%0692!
 +
 +Here there actually is a previous (Q) chunk, so its header is fetched.  If it
 +is not on the same bank as the new chunk, then the new chunk cannot be
 +coalesced with it.  Also, if the address of the new chunk does not exactly
 +follow the Q chunk, then they cannot be coalesced.
 +
 +.%0693!  +  ldx #freeMemNextPtr
 +.%0694!     ldy #5
 +.%0695!     jsr zpload
 +.%0696!     lda zp1+2
 +.%0697!     cmp freeNewPtr+2
 +.%0698!     bne +
 +.%0699!     clc
 +.%0700!     lda zp1
 +.%0701!     adc freeMemLength
 +.%0702!     tax
 +.%0703!     lda zp1+1
 +.%0704!     adc freeMemLength+1
 +.%0705!     cmp freeNewPtr+1
 +.%0706!     bne +
 +.%0707!     cpx freeNewPtr
 +.%0708!     bne +
 +
 +Here, we know that the previous chunk and the new chunk can be coalesced.  We
 +add the length of the new chunk to the length of the previous chunk and change
 +the new chunk pointer to point to the previous chunk.
 +
 +.%0709!     clc
 +.%0710!     lda freeMemLength
 +.%0711!     adc freeLength
 +.%0712!     sta freeMemLength
 +.%0713!     lda freeMemLength+1
 +.%0714!     adc freeLength+1
 +.%0715!     sta freeMemLength+1
 +.%0716!     ldx #2
 +.%0717!  -  lda freeQ,x
 +.%0718!     sta freeNewPtr,x
 +.%0719!     dex
 +.%0720!     bpl -
 +.%0721!     bmi freeCoalesceNewAndP
 +.%0722!
 +
 +Here, we know that the previous and new chunks cannot be coalesced.  We change
 +the actual header of the pervious chunk to point to the new chunk and change
 +the new chunk header length to the free request length.  The pointer to the
 +next chunk is already in the new chunk header from before.  Note that now we
 +are using "memNextPtr" and "memLength" to construct the new free chunk
 +header.  Line 729 caused Mr. Bruce some problems because he forgot to stick
 +the "+1" there after extracting the code from Zed.
 +
 +.%0723!  +  ldx #freeNewPtr
 +.%0724!     ldy #3
 +.%0725!     jsr zpstore
 +.%0726!     lda freeLength
 +.%0727!     ldy freeLength+1
 +.%0728!     sta freeMemLength
 +.%0729!     sty freeMemLength+1
 +.%0730!
 +
 +At this point, we are finished trying to coalesce the new chunk with the
 +previous chunk, so we will attempt to coalesce the new chunk with the next
 +higher address free chunk.  The "memNextPtr" and "memLength" variables hold
 +the header information for the new chunk (the "memNextPtr" also points to the
 +next free chunk), and "NewPtr" points to the new chunk.  We check to see if
 +the new chunk immediately preceeds the next chunk in the same way as before.
 +Note that the case of a Null next chunk pointer is handled here implicitly,
 +since the bank numbers won't match.
 +
 +.%0731!     freeCoalesceNewAndP = *
 +.%0732!     lda freeNewPtr+2
 +.%0733!     cmp freeMemNextPtr+2
 +.%0734!     bne +
 +.%0735!     clc
 +.%0736!     lda freeNewPtr
 +.%0737!     adc freeMemLength
 +.%0738!     tax
 +.%0739!     lda freeNewPtr+1
 +.%0740!     adc freeMemLength+1
 +.%0741!     cmp freeMemNextPtr+1
 +.%0742!     bne +
 +.%0743!     cpx freeMemNextPtr
 +.%0744!     bne +
 +.%0745!
 +
 +Here, we know that the new chunk can be coalesced with the next chunk.  We
 +have to fetch the header of the next chunk to know the length and the pointer
 +to the free chunk after the next chunk.  We then add the length of the next
 +chunk to the length of the new chunk and keep the pointer to the chunk after
 +the next chunk for the new chunk header.  Effectively, the next free chunk is
 +unlinked (since nothing is left to point to it) and the new chunk grows to
 +swallow it up.
 +
 +.%0746!     ldx #2
 +.%0747!  -  lda freeMemNextPtr,x
 +.%0748!     sta zp1,x
 +.%0749!     dex
 +.%0750!     bpl -
 +.%0751!     lda freeMemLength+1
 +.%0752!     pha
 +.%0753!     lda freeMemLength
 +.%0754!     pha
 +.%0755!     ldx #freeMemNextPtr
 +.%0756!     ldy #5
 +.%0757!     jsr zpload
 +.%0758!     clc
 +.%0759!     pla
 +.%0760!     adc freeMemLength
 +.%0761!     sta freeMemLength
 +.%0762!     pla
 +.%0763!     adc freeMemLength+1
 +.%0764!     sta freeMemLength+1
 +.%0765!
 +
 +Here, we wrap things up.  We have the header for the new free chunk all
 +prepared and we have tried to coalesce the two neighboring chunks to the new
 +chunk.  All we do now is write the new chunk header out to main memory and
 +increase the number of bytes free variable by the length of the (original)
 +free request.
 +
 +.%0766!  +  ldx #2
 +.%0767!  -  lda freeNewPtr,x
 +.%0768!     sta zp1,x
 +.%0769!     dex
 +.%0770!     bpl -
 +.%0771!     ldx #freeMemNextPtr
 +.%0772!     ldy #5
 +.%0773!     jsr zpstore
 +.%0774!     clc
 +.%0775!     lda freeMemory
 +.%0776!     adc freeLength
 +.%0777!     sta freeMemory
 +.%0778!     lda freeMemory+1
 +.%0779!     adc freeLength+1
 +.%0780!     sta freeMemory+1
 +.%0781!     bcc +
 +.%0782!     inc freeMemory+2
 +
 +We always return with carry cleared, since we don't check for any errors.
 +
 +.%0783!  +  clc
 +.%0784!     rts
 +.%0785!
 +.%0786!  ;--------------------------------------------------------------------
 +.%0787!  ;*** sort - the application: reads from file #1, writes to file #2
 +.%0788!
 +
 +This is where the actual application code starts.  If you want to write your
 +own program that uses the dynamic memory allocation package, then you can
 +follow the structure of this application.
 +
 +We start off by declaring the storage areas for the current line being
 +processed and for the line being compared to the current line.  The addresses
 +reflect the structure of the record for the input line that was discussed
 +earlier.  The sorting field starting column number parameter is can be put at
 +$8FF since the input line can only be 242 characters long.
 +
 +.%0789!  sortbuf    = $b00
 +.%0790!  sortbuflen = $b03
 +.%0791!  sortline   = $b04
 +.%0792!  cmpbuf     = $800
 +.%0793!  cmpbuflen  = $803
 +.%0794!  cmpline    = $804
 +.%0795!  sortColumn = $8ff
 +.%0796!
 +
 +These are the zero page locations that sort uses.
 +
 +.%0797!  eofstat  = $02  ;deferred ST variable ($90)
 +.%0798!  sorthead = $03  ;pointer to first line in line list
 +.%0799!  sortP    = $06  ;current line for list searching
 +.%0800!  sortQ    = $09  ;previous line for list searching
 +.%0801!  header   = $0c  ;4 bytes - holds the current line record's header
 +.%0802!
 +
 +And these are the kernel routines that are called.
 +
 +.%0803!  kernelChkin  = $ffc6
 +.%0804!  kernelChkout = $ffc9
 +.%0805!  kernelClrchn = $ffcc
 +.%0806!  kernelChrin  = $ffcf
 +.%0807!  kernelChrout = $ffd2
 +
 +"echoStatus" can be changed to point to an RTS if you do not want sort to
 +print status information out while it is working.
 +
 +.%0808!  echoStatus   = kernelChrout
 +.%0809!
 +.%0810!  ;*** getline( sortline ) : .CS=eof
 +.%0811!
 +
 +This routine reads a new line in from the current input channel and puts it
 +into the processing buffer.  It returns with carry set if there are no more
 +lines to read or if a read error occurs.
 +
 +.%0812!  getline = *
 +.%0813!     ldy #0
 +
 +The "eofstat" is checked first to see if the previous character read before
 +the new call was the last of the file.  This overcomes the kernel's awkward
 +way of setting EOI for the last character rather than when for when you go
 +beyond the last character.
 +
 +.%0814!  -  bit eofstat
 +.%0815!     bvs getlineEof
 +.%0816!     jsr kernelChrin
 +.%0817!     bcs getlineEof
 +.%0818!     sta sortline,y
 +.%0819!     iny
 +.%0820!     ldx $90
 +.%0821!     stx eofstat
 +
 +It exits when the maximum line length is exceeded or when a carriage return is
 +encountered.
 +
 +.%0822!     cpy #242
 +.%0823!     bcs getlineExit
 +.%0824!     cmp #13
 +.%0825!     bne -
 +.%0826!     dey
 +.%0827!
 +
 +A trailing '\0' is appended to the string for easier processing later, and the
 +length of the input line record is recorded.  The length of the entire record
 +rather than the length of just the text is more convenient to know when
 +working with the memory package.
 +
 +.%0828!     getlineExit = *
 +.%0829!     lda #0
 +.%0830!     sta sortline,y
 +.%0831!     clc
 +.%0832!     tya
 +.%0833!     adc #5
 +.%0834!     sta sortbuflen
 +.%0835!     clc
 +.%0836!     rts
 +.%0837!
 +
 +On end of file, we exit with carry set.  If, however, we have read characters
 +before the EOF was encountered, they are returned as belonging to the last
 +line of the file.  True EOF will be returned on the next call.
 +
 +.%0838!     getlineEof = *
 +.%0839!     lda #$40
 +.%0840!     sta eofstat
 +.%0841!     cpy #0
 +.%0842!     bne getlineExit
 +.%0843!     sec
 +.%0844!     rts
 +.%0845!
 +.%0846!  ;*** putline( appline )
 +.%0847!
 +
 +This routine simply writes out the current line ('\0' terminated) and writes
 +an additional carriage return, since the getline routine strips off the CR.
 +
 +.%0848!  putline = *
 +.%0849!     ldy #0
 +.%0850!  -  lda sortline,y
 +.%0851!     beq +
 +.%0852!     jsr kernelChrout
 +.%0853!     iny
 +.%0854!     bne -
 +.%0855!  +  lda #13
 +.%0856!     jmp kernelChrout
 +.%0857!
 +.%0858!  ;*** fetchline( sortP=LinePtr, .AY=Ram0buf )
 +.%0859!
 +
 +This routine fetches the line at the pointer sortP into RAM0 at the given
 +address.  It has to zpload the line header first to determine the record size
 +to fetch.
 +
 +.%0860!  fetchline = *
 +.%0861!     sta zw1
 +.%0862!     sty zw1+1
 +.%0863!     ldx #2
 +.%0864!  -  lda sortP,x
 +.%0865!     sta zp1,x
 +.%0866!     dex
 +.%0867!     bpl -
 +.%0868!     ldx #header
 +.%0869!     ldy #4
 +.%0870!     jsr zpload
 +.%0871!     lda header+3
 +.%0872!     ldy #0
 +.%0873!     jmp fetch
 +.%0874!
 +.%0875!  ;*** sortGTcmp( sortline, cmpline ) : .CS={sortline >= cmpline}
 +.%0876!
 +
 +This routine compares the lines stored in the "sortline" and "cmpline" buffers
 +and returns with carry set if the "sortline" is larger (alphabetically).  It
 +also takes into account the starting comparison positions and handles the case
 +of either or both lines not being as long as the start position of the string
 +comparison.
 +
 +.%0877!  sortGTcmp = *
 +
 +This section of code makes bit0 of .X a "1" if sortline is not long enough to
 +be compared, and makes bit1 a "1" if cmpline is too short.
 +
 +.%0878!     ldx #0
 +.%0879!     clc
 +.%0880!     lda sortColumn
 +.%0881!     adc #5
 +.%0882!     cmp sortbuflen
 +.%0883!     bcc +
 +.%0884!     inx
 +.%0885!  +  cmp cmpbuflen
 +.%0886!     bcc +
 +.%0887!     inx
 +.%0888!     inx
 +
 +And here is where it takes action depending whether the lines are large enough
 +or not.  The cases are:
 +
 +. .X=%00000000 - strings are long enough to be compared, so continue
 +. .X=%00000001 - sortline is too short, cmpline ok, so return with carry clear
 +. .X=%00000010 - cmpline is too short, sortline ok, so return with carry set
 +. .X=%00000011 - both sortline and cmpline are too short; carry set
 +
 +.%0889!  +  txa
 +.%0890!     beq doCompare
 +.%0891!     cmp #2
 +.%0892!     rts
 +.%0893!
 +.%0894!     doCompare = *
 +
 +This section does the compare if both lines are long enough.
 +
 +.%0895!     ldy sortColumn
 +.%0896!  -  lda sortline,y
 +.%0897!     cmp cmpline,y
 +.%0898!     bne +
 +.%0899!     cmp #0
 +.%0900!     beq +
 +.%0901!     iny
 +.%0902!     bne -
 +.%0903!  +  rts
 +.%0904!
 +.%0905!  ;*** positionLine( sortline ) : sortQ=prev, sortP=next
 +.%0906!
 +
 +This routine searches for the correct position in the line list to insert the
 +new line, and returns sortQ and sortP to straddle the new line position.  Note
 +that this routine causes the list to be in reverse order as discussed
 +earlier.
 +
 +.%0907!  positionLine = *
 +
 +Set P to head and Q to Null.
 +
 +.%0908!     ldx #2
 +.%0909!  -  lda #bkNull
 +.%0910!     sta sortQ,x
 +.%0911!     lda sorthead,x
 +.%0912!     sta sortP,x
 +.%0913!     dex
 +.%0914!     bpl -
 +.%0915!
 +.%0916!     positionSearch = *
 +
 +This routine breaks out if the current line pointer is Null.  Otherwise, it
 +fetches the current line pointer (sortP) into the cmpline buffer and calls the
 +string compare routine.  If the new line read in from the file is greater than
 +or equal to the current line already in the list, the search kicks out.  The
 +"bcs" on line 924 controls the order of the sort.  Otherwise, the P and Q
 +pointers are updated in the usual way and the search continues.
 +
 +.%0917!     lda sortP+2
 +.%0918!     cmp #bkNull
 +.%0919!     beq positionExit
 +.%0920!     lda #<cmpbuf
 +.%0921!     ldy #>cmpbuf
 +.%0922!     jsr fetchline
 +.%0923!     jsr sortGTcmp
 +.%0924!     bcs positionExit    ;** controls sort order
 +.%0925!     ldx #2
 +.%0926!  -  lda sortP,x
 +.%0927!     sta sortQ,x
 +.%0928!     lda cmpbuf,x
 +.%0929!     sta sortP,x
 +.%0930!     dex
 +.%0931!     bpl -
 +.%0932!     bmi positionSearch
 +.%0933!
 +.%0934!     positionExit = *
 +
 +At this point, sortP and sortQ straddle the position to put the new line, so
 +we return.
 +
 +.%0935!     rts
 +.%0936!
 +.%0937!  ;*** storeline( sortline )    {between sortQ and sortP}
 +.%0938!
 +
 +This routine actually stores the new line read in between the sortQ and sortP
 +lines.
 +
 +.%0939!  storeline = *
 +
 +First, space for the new line is allocated.
 +
 +.%0940!     lda sortbuflen
 +.%0941!     ldy #0
 +.%0942!     jsr malloc
 +.%0943!     bcc +
 +.%0944!     rts
 +
 +And the new line's next pointer is set to point to sortP.
 +
 +.%0945!  +  ldx #2
 +.%0946!  -  lda sortP,x
 +.%0947!     sta sortbuf,x
 +.%0948!     dex
 +.%0949!     bpl -
 +
 +And the new line is stashed out to main memory.
 +
 +.%0950!     lda #<sortbuf
 +.%0951!     ldy #>sortbuf
 +.%0952!     sta zw1
 +.%0953!     sty zw1+1
 +.%0954!     lda sortbuflen
 +.%0955!     ldy #0
 +.%0956!     jsr stash
 +
 +Now all that is left to is make the previous line record (sortQ) point to the
 +new line record.
 +
 +.%0957!     lda sortQ+2
 +.%0958!     cmp #bkNull
 +.%0959!     beq storelineFirst
 +
 +If there is an actual previous line, the new line pointer is written out over
 +the next line pointer in its header.
 +
 +.%0960!     ldx #2
 +.%0961!  -  lda zp1,x
 +.%0962!     ldy sortQ,x
 +.%0963!     sta sortQ,x
 +.%0964!     sty zp1,x
 +.%0965!     dex
 +.%0966!     bpl -
 +.%0967!     ldx #sortQ
 +.%0968!     ldy #3
 +.%0969!     jsr zpstore
 +.%0970!     clc
 +.%0971!     rts
 +.%0972!
 +
 +If there is no actual previous line, then the line list head pointer is set to
 +point to the new line (which is now the first line on the list).
 +
 +.%0973!     storelineFirst = *
 +.%0974!     ldx #2
 +.%0975!  -  lda zp1,x
 +.%0976!     sta sorthead,x
 +.%0977!     dex
 +.%0978!     bpl -
 +.%0979!     clc
 +.%0980!     rts
 +.%0981!
 +.%0982!  ;*** readfile()
 +.%0983!
 +
 +This routine reads in the file and puts the lines into their correct sorted
 +positions as it is reading.
 +
 +.%0984!  readfile = *
 +
 +Clear the line list by setting the head pointer to Null.
 +
 +.%0985!     ldx #2
 +.%0986!     lda #bkNull
 +.%0987!  -  sta sorthead,x
 +.%0988!     dex
 +.%0989!     bpl -
 +
 +Set the EOF flag to 0 and set the current input channel to logical file #1
 +which is assumed to be opened before the sort utility is invoked.
 +
 +.%0990!     lda #0
 +.%0991!     sta eofstat
 +.%0992!     ldx #1
 +.%0993!     jsr kernelChkin
 +.%0994!     bcs readExit
 +
 +Until EOF, read the new line, find the position in the line list, store it,
 +print out a "." to indicate to the user that another line has been processed,
 +and repeat.  Exit on EOF.
 +
 +.%0995!  -  jsr getline
 +.%0996!     bcs readExit
 +.%0997!     jsr positionLine
 +.%0998!     jsr storeline
 +.%0999!     bcs readExit
 +.%1000!     lda #"."
 +.%1001!     jsr echoStatus
 +.%1002!     jmp -
 +.%1003!
 +.%1004!     readExit = *
 +.%1005!     rts
 +.%1006!
 +.%1007!  ;*** writefile()
 +.%1008!
 +
 +This routine writes the line list out to logical file number 2 which is
 +assumed to be opened before the sort utility is invoked.  This routine follows
 +the standard structure for processing a linked list.
 +
 +.%1009!  writefile = *
 +.%1010!     ldx #2
 +.%1011!  -  lda sorthead,x
 +.%1012!     sta sortP,x
 +.%1013!     dex
 +.%1014!     bpl -
 +.%1015!     ldx #2
 +.%1016!     jsr kernelChkout
 +.%1017!
 +.%1018!     writeLine = *
 +.%1019!     lda sortP+2
 +.%1020!     cmp #bkNull
 +.%1021!     beq writeExit
 +.%1022!     lda #<sortbuf
 +.%1023!     ldy #>sortbuf
 +.%1024!     jsr fetchline
 +.%1025!     jsr putline
 +.%1026!     ldx #2
 +.%1027!  -  lda sortbuf,x
 +.%1028!     sta sortP,x
 +.%1029!     dex
 +.%1030!     bpl -
 +.%1031!     jmp writeLine
 +.%1032!
 +.%1033!     writeExit = *
 +.%1034!     jsr kernelClrchn
 +.%1035!     rts
 +.%1036!
 +.%1037!  ;*** reverseList()
 +.%1038!
 +
 +This routine will reverse the order of the line list.  Starting from the head
 +line, each line is extracted and is made to point to the previous line
 +extracted.  No data actually has to be moved around; only the headers of the
 +line records have to be changed.
 +
 +.%1039!  reverseFile = *
 +.%1040!     ldx #2
 +.%1041!  -  lda sorthead,x
 +.%1042!     sta zp1,x
 +.%1043!     lda #bkNull
 +.%1044!     sta sorthead,x
 +.%1045!     dex
 +.%1046!     bpl -
 +.%1047!
 +.%1048!     reverseLine = *
 +.%1049!     lda zp1+2
 +.%1050!     cmp #bkNull
 +.%1051!     beq reverseExit
 +
 +Fetch the pointer from the current line into sortP and then replace it with
 +the value at sorthead (the previous line altered).
 +
 +.%1052!     ldx #sortP
 +.%1053!     ldy #3
 +.%1054!     jsr zpload
 +.%1055!     ldx #sorthead
 +.%1056!     ldy #3
 +.%1057!     jsr zpstore
 +
 +Make sorthead point to the current line, and then go to the next line whose
 +pointer was extracted from the current line (before the current line was
 +changed).
 +
 +.%1058!     ldx #2
 +.%1059!  -  lda zp1,x
 +.%1060!     sta sorthead,x
 +.%1061!     lda sortP,x
 +.%1062!     sta zp1,x
 +.%1063!     dex
 +.%1064!     bpl -
 +.%1065!     bmi reverseLine
 +.%1066!
 +.%1067!     reverseExit = *
 +.%1068!     rts
 +.%1069!
 +.%1070!  ;*** freefile()
 +.%1071!
 +
 +This routine scans through the lines in the line list and deallocates each
 +line record.
 +
 +.%1072!  freefile = *
 +.%1073!     ldx #2
 +.%1074!  -  lda sorthead,x
 +.%1075!     sta zp1,x
 +.%1076!     dex
 +.%1077!     bpl -
 +.%1078!
 +.%1079!     freeLine = *
 +.%1080!     lda zp1+2
 +.%1081!     cmp #bkNull
 +.%1082!     bne +
 +.%1083!     rts
 +.%1084!  +  ldx #header
 +.%1085!     ldy #4
 +.%1086!     jsr zpload
 +.%1087!     lda header+3
 +.%1088!     ldy #0
 +.%1089!     jsr free
 +.%1090!     ldx #2
 +.%1091!  -  lda header,x
 +.%1092!     sta zp1,x
 +.%1093!     dex
 +.%1094!     bpl -
 +.%1095!     jmp freeLine
 +.%1096!
 +.%1097!  ;*** main()
 +.%1098!
 +
 +Finally!  The main routine sets the sort key column and calls each of the
 +subroutines for the different phases of the sort and prints out a letter
 +indicating what the program is currently doing.
 +
 +.%1099!  main = *
 +.%1100!     cmp #1
 +.%1101!     bcc +
 +.%1102!     sbc #1
 +.%1103!  +  sta sortColumn
 +.%1104!     lda #"s"
 +.%1105!     jsr echoStatus
 +.%1106!     jsr startup
 +.%1107!     lda #"r"
 +.%1108!     jsr echoStatus
 +.%1109!     jsr readfile
 +.%1110!     lda #"v"
 +.%1111!     jsr echoStatus
 +.%1112!     jsr reverseFile
 +.%1113!     lda #"w"
 +.%1114!     jsr echoStatus
 +.%1115!     jsr writefile
 +.%1116!     lda #"f"
 +.%1117!     jsr echoStatus
 +.%1118!     jsr freefile
 +.%1119!     lda #"x"
 +.%1120!     jsr echoStatus
 +.%1121!     jsr shutdown
 +.%1122!     lda #13
 +.%1123!     jsr echoStatus
 +
 +It returns with .A set to zero in case the user calls sort again and forgets
 +to specify a value for the sorting column using the BASIC SYS statement.
 +
 +.%1124!     lda #0
 +.%1125!     rts
 +
 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 +
 +5. FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS
 +
 +This dynamic memory allocation package does not support expanded internal
 +memory (as specified in Twin Cities-128 Magazine) or RamLink memory.  I am
 +planning to modify the memory allocation in the Zed-128 program to support
 +both of these kinds of memory.  The extra internal memory banks would be
 +accessed in a similar manner as RAM1 is, except that I will need to have some
 +special bank numbers for them, since they cannot be handled in exactly the
 +same way as RAM0 and RAM1.  I will also have to modify that other MMU register
 +in order to select which real banks show up in the RAM2 and RAM3 positons.
 +
 +The memory inside a RamLink can be accessed in a similar way to how memory is
 +accessed in an REU.  One big difference is that the layout of the storage in a
 +RamLink is actually organized.  A RamLink (and a RamDrive I assume) can have
 +up to 31 partitons of various types.  I am thinking that to sniff a RamLink,
 +the package will check to see if you have a RamLink and will then check to see
 +if you have partiton number 31 set up as a "foreign" mode partition with the
 +name "swap" If so, the package will ask the RL-DOS for the start address and
 +length of the partition and will then use the RamLink memory instead of an
 +REU.  This makes sense since an REU can be made to be part of the RamLink
 +and since you can get a lot more memory in a RamLink than I have ever heard of
 +in an expanded REU.  I personally have an 8 Meg RamLink and I have set aside a
 +1 Meg partition for the swap space.  Now I just have to write the software to
 +use it.
 +
 +These additional types of memory can be seemlessly implemented into this
 +package and the usage will be compeletely transparent to the user and to the
 +higher level routines.
 +
 +Also, although I have not attempted to do this, the code presented here could
 +be ported to the Commodore 64.  The common code routines would be removed
 +since the 64 has only one internal bank, and instead of using the MMU to
 +select RAM0, you would store into the processor I/O port to select the bare
 +internal RAM.  (You would also have to worry about interrupts happening while
 +you are accessing this memory).  All of the higher level code above the
 +zpload, zpstore, fetch and stash routines would (probably) stay (pretty much)
 +the same, since they call the lower level routines to do the actual
 +machine-specific grunt work.
 +
 +If you have any questions or comments about this article, feel free to drop me
 +a line.
 +
 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 +
 +6. UUENCODED BINARIES
 +
 +Here are the BASIC program and the machine language subroutines for the
 +sorting utility.  They are in uuencoded form and you will probably have to
 +extract them into separate files before you uudecode them.  Enjoy!
 +
 +begin 640 sort
 +M`1PF'`$`222R(DE.4%541DE,12Y46%0B(#H@242R."`Z(%-&LC$`11P"`$\D
 +MLB)/5510551&24Q%+E185"(@.B!/1+(X`$L<`P`Z`&8<9`"9(DQ/041)3D<@
 +M4T]25"Y"24XN+BXB`'`<;@#^`B`Q-0"'''@`_A$B4T]25"Y"24XB+%4H240I
 +M`*4<@@"9(E-#4D%40TA)3D<@3TQ$($9)3$4N+BXB`+4<C`#R*$\D*2Q5*$]$
 +M*0#'')8`F2)33U)424Y'+BXN(@#;'*``GS$L240L,BPB,#HBJDDD`/8<J@"?
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 +end
 +
 +============================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== Next Issue: (Hopefully!!! :-] ) ======
 +<code>
 +The 1351 Mouse Demystified
 +
 +  An indepth look at how the 1351 mouse operates and how to access it within 
 +your ML programs, in addition to a BASIC driver for the 80 column screen.
 +
 +ML Tutor - Part 3
 +
 +  In this edition we take a look at reading and writing commands to the disk
 +drive, including reading the disk directory.  This article will also parallel
 +the discussion of the C=128 and C=64 KERNAL jump tables of available routines.
 +
 +KERNAL 64/128 
 +
 +  The C=128 and C=64 jump table that points to many valuable system routines is
 +listed and discussed with example applications and how to use them.
 +
 +Bursting your 128
 +
 +  This article will examine the routines and mysteries about how to use Burst
 +commands on the 1571 and 1581, including the Fastload utility and the block
 +Read and Write calls.
 +============================================================================
 +END of C= Hacking Issue 2.
 +============================================================================
 +</code>
magazines/chacking2.txt · Last modified: 2015-04-17 04:34 by 127.0.0.1