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 +#####                                                                     ##
 + ######            ######        Issue #8
 +   ##################            Aug. '94
 +       ########
  
 +------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 +</code>
 +====== Editor's Notes ======
 +<code>
 +by Craig Taylor (duck@pembvax1.pembroke.edu)
 +
 +     Woe be to Commodore,
 +     The marketer's have finally killed it,
 +     With a little bit of spending here,
 +     And not much over there,
 +     You know that Commodore has finally died.
 +  
 +     And that's the way life should be,
 +     The Commodore fanatics cried.
 +     We'll probably be better off they yell,
 +     Let Commodore go to hell.
 +     So the question is who'll purchase Commodore?
 +
 +Yes, for those of you who are unaware Commodore has declared bankruptcy.
 +There are numerous rumours abound over whose interested in what divisions of
 +Commodore and such - there's still no definate word on the net. Several
 +factors can be blamed for Commodore's demise: Commodore _never_ was
 +successful in marketing products. The engineers would often turn out miracle
 +machines that the marketing department (I wonder if there even was one)
 +promoted badly, if at all. What has put the nail in the coffin for Commodore
 +was the lack of financial capital to keep the company in operation. A lot of
 +this news has been discussed on GEnie, the newsgroup Comp.Sys.Cbm, and
 +various magazines as well so I won't elaborate any further. 
 +
 +Speaking of magazines, Creative Micro Designs has started a magazine for
 +Commodore 8-bit's called, "Commodore World". The magazine is very well done. 
 +There are other magazines that also deserve mention: DieHard, the Underground
 +and many others. Commodore may be bankrupt but the Commodore will still live
 +forever.
 +
 +Speaking of living forever, Commodore Hacking is looking for articles on any
 +subject dealing with any aspect of technical programming or hardware on the
 +Commodore. If you've got an article already written, or an idea for one
 +_please_ feel free to e-mail me via duck@pembvax1.pembroke.edu. Many thanks
 +to the authors whose works make up this and previous issues. 
 +
 +=============================================================================
 +
 +  Please note that this issue and prior ones are available via anonymous
 +  FTP from ccnga.uwaterloo.ca (among others) under pub/cbm/hacking.mag
 +  and via a mailserver which documentation can be obtained by sending
 +  mail to "duck@pembvax1.pembroke.edu" with a subject line of
 +  "mailserver" and the lines of "help" and "catalog" in the body of the
 +  message.
 +
 +=============================================================================
 +
 +  NOTICE: Permission is granted to re-distribute this "net-magazine", in
 +  whole, freely for non-profit use. However, please contact individual
 +  authors for permission to publish or re-distribute articles seperately.
 +  A charge of no greater than 5 US dollars or equivlent may be charged
 +  for library service / diskette costs for this "net-magazine".
 +
 +=============================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== In This Issue ======
 +<code>
 +
 +Commodore Trivia Corner
 +
 +This section of C=Hacking contains questions that test your knwoledge of
 +tricks and little known-information for the Commodore computers. Each issue
 +they'll be answers to the previous issues questions and new questions. How
 +much do you know?
 +
 +RS232 Converter
 +
 +This article, with a minimum of parts, details how to make your own RS-232
 +converter. 
 +
 +Programming the Commodore RAM Expansion Units (REUs)
 +
 +The REC chip is a DMA (direct memory access) chip that allows for the
 +Commodore 64 and 128 to use the Ram Expansion Units. This article examines
 +how to access the chip in your own ML programs.
 +
 +A Different Perspective: Three-Dimensional Graphics on the C64
 +
 +In this article, co-written by Stephen Judd and George Taylor, is
 +presented all the basic graphics tools and mathematical theory behind
 +3d graphics.  The basic tools are using a charset to make graphics,
 +plotting a point, drawing a line, clearing the graphics, and double
 +buffering.  The 3d tools are defining a 3d object, rotation of the
 +object in 3d space, and perspective viewing on a 2d screen.
 +Programs are presented in basic 2.0, basic 7.0, and assembly which
 +show a rotating cube outline.
 +
 +Design of a 'Real' Operating System for the 128: Part I
 +
 +Written Craig Bruce this article examines a 'real' operating system for the
 +Commdore 128.  It focuses on the OS being Multi-tasking, Distributed and based
 +on a MicroKernal.  Why?  As he states, "Because I'm designing it, and that's
 +what interests me.  The ease-of-construction thing is important too.  Another
 +important question is 'can it be done?' The answer is 'yes.'  And it will
 +be done, whenever I get around to it (one of these lifetimes)."
 +
 +=============================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== Commodore Trivia Corner ======
 +<code>
 +by Jim Brain (brain@mail.msen.com)
 +
 +It is time for another dose of trivia!  As some of you may know, The
 +Commodore Trivia Editions are posted every month to the USENET newsgroups
 +comp.sys.cbm, alt.folklore.computers, and comp.sys.amiga.advocacy.  This
 +article is a compilation Trivia Editions 2-8, with only the questions
 +appearing for Edition 8.  These are part of a Trivia Contest in which 
 +anyone may enter.  If you wish to participate in the newest
 +Trivia contest (Which is on Trivia 8 as I write this), please send your
 +answers to me at 'brain@mail.msen.com'
 +
 +The following article contains the answers to the January edition of trivia
 +($00A - $01F), the questions and answers for Febrary ($020 - $02F), March 
 +($030 - $03F), April ($040 - $04F), May ($050 - $05F), June ($060 - $06F), 
 +and the questions for the July edition ($070 - $07F).  Enjoy them!
 +
 +
 +Here are the answers to the Commodore trivia questions for January, 1994.
 +
 +
 +Q $00A) What was the Code-Name of the Amiga while in Development?
 +
 +A $00A) Lorraine.  Amiga was the company name.  When Commodore bought the
 + company, they scrapped the model name and used the old company name.
 +
 +Q $00B) What is Lord British's Real Name (The creator of the Ultima
 + Series)?
 +
 +A $00B) Richard Garriott.  Scott Statton has met him and says that he is son
 + of astronaut Owen Garriott.
 +
 +Q $00C) What is the POKE location and value that will fry an early model
 + PET?        
 +
 +A $00C) 59458.  It is in the (Versatile Interface Adapter, 6522)
 + No, I won't tell you what to poke into it, but I will tell you
 + that it is not the only way to fry a PET.  here is a description from
 + none other than Jim Butterfield
 +
 + "The poke shopwn above is correct. Its intention was to speed up early
 + model PETs by masking the RETRACE line (by switching it to output)...
 +
 + however, Commodore subsequently REDESIGNED the interface in such a way
 + that making the VIA pin an output caused (now) two outputs to fight
 + each other ... result, VIA and/or video circuitry burnt out.
 +
 + LATER (Days of "fat 40" and 80-column PETs), the new CRT controller
 + chip could be fiddled with POKES so that it generated scan rates
 + completely out of the capacity of the CRT deflection circuits.  
 + Result: burnt out deflection circuitry ... and that was no YOKE!"
 +
 + Richard Bradley says that 59595 is the second poke that Jim is
 + referring to.
 +
 + I also have in on word from Ethan Dicks that 59409 is another
 + infamous poke, but I wouldn't try any of these!
 +
 +Q $00D) On the Plus 4 and C-16, the VIC chip was replaced with the TED
 + chip.  What does TED stand for?
 +
 +A $00D) TED = Text Editing Device.  It did not have as many capabilities
 + as the VIC II.
 +
 +Q $00E) Commodore Produced a daisy-wheel letter quality printer in North
 + America (maybe elsewhere) for the Commodore Serial Line.  Name it.
 +        
 +A $00E) The Commodore DPS 1101.  The CBM 6400 was another earlier attempt
 + at a daisy-wheel printer, but it had an IEEE-488 interface.
 +
 +Q $00F) What is the version of DOS in the 1541?
 +
 +A $00F) 2.6
 +
 +Q $010) What is the Version of BASIC in the Plus 4 and the C-16?
 +
 +A $010) 3.5.
 +
 +Q $011) What are the nicknames of the original three custom Amiga chips?
 +
 +A $011) Daphne/Denise, Agnes/Agnus, and Paula/Portia, or Huey, Duey, and Louie.
 + Denise, Agnes, and Paula were the American names, but the the others
 + crept in from somwhere.  the ducks were always a joke, but caught on
 + as alternate names.
 +
 +Q $012) Commodore produced a 64 in a PET case.  What is its name and model
 + number?
 +
 +A $012) The Educator 64.  It was model number CBM 4064, and it was also called
 + the PET64.  Note that this version of the 64 was the second attempt.
 + Commodore first tried to sell the "Educator 64" to schools in the
 + regular 64 case, but administrators and teachers disliked the "homey"
 + look.  Thus, it was squeezed into a PET case and sold better, although
 + I don't think it was ever a killer seller.
 +
 +Q $013) Commodore sold a 1 megabyte floppy disk drive in a 1541 case.
 + Give the model number.
 +
 +A $013) The Commodore SFD 1001.  It was actually half of an CBM 8250 LP
 + with a slightly revised ROM.
 +
 +Q $014) What does GCR stand for?
 +
 +A $014) Group Code Recording.
 +
 +Q $015) Commodore produced a drive to accompany the Plus 4 introduction that
 + was designed specifically for the Plus/4.  Give the model number.
 +  
 +A $015) the CBM 1551 was the new, high-performance drive that was designed
 + specifically for the Commodore Plus/4 and C-16.  The 1542 was
 + actually just a repackaged 1541 in a grey case that was made available
 + for people who didn't want to spend the extra money for the 1551.  The
 + extra cost resulted from the 1551 sporting a new, parallel transfer
 + method that increased transfer rates 400%.
 +
 +Q $016) What does SID stand for?
 +
 +A $016) SID = Sound Interface Device
 +
 +Q $017) What does the acronym KERNAL stand for?
 +
 +A $017) KERNAL = Keyboard Entry Read, Network, And Link.  This is most likely
 + another "words after the letters" acronym, along the lines of the
 + PET acronym.
 +
 +Q $018) What version of DOS does the 1571 have?
 +
 +A $018) 3.0
 +
 +Q $019) What other two Commdore Disk Drives share the same DOS version
 + number as the 1571?
 +
 +A $019) I got more than I bargained for on this question, since there
 +        are four drives which have the same DOS version that I feel are
 +        adequate responses to this question. 
 +       
 + The CBM D9060 and D9090, although I doubt the code is the same.
 + The D series were hard drives. 
 +        
 + The 8280 Dual 8" Floppy Drive.
 +
 + The 1570, which was a single sided version of the 1571 in a 1541
 + case painted to match the 128.  The ROM is slightly different,
 + enough to make it unrecognizable as either a 1541 or a 1571 in some
 + cases.
 +
 + The 1571II and the 1571D, which is the drive in the C128D, also 
 + have this DOS revision, but that stands to reason, since they are 
 + in the 1571 line.
 + 
 +Q $01A) How many files will the 1571 hold?
 +
 +A $01A) 144 in both modes.  I am surprised Commodore didn't add a track or
 + put another directory on the back.
 +
 +Q $01B) How many files will the 1541 hold?
 +
 +A $01B) 144. 
 +      
 +Q $01C) What did Commodore make right before entering the computer market?
 +
 +A $01C) Calculators.  They also made office equipment, watches, adding 
 + machines, and thermostats, hence the name "Commodore Business 
 + Machines".     
 +     
 +Q $01D) Commodore introduced an ill-fated 4 color plotter.  Give the model
 + number.
 +
 +A $01D) the Commodore 1520.  It used 4 inch wide paper and could use 4
 + colors.
 +
 +Q $01E) Some formats of CP/M write disks using the MFM format.  What does
 + MFM stand for?
 +
 +A $01E) MFM = Modified Frequency Modulation
 +
 +Q $01F) On the Commdore 128, the user manual left three commands undocumented.
 + One works, and the other gives a not-implemented error.  Name the
 + commands and what each one does or does not do.       
 +
 +A $01F) RREG reads the internal registers after a SYS command.
 +        OFF gives an unimplemented command error. 
 + QUIT does too.
 +
 +
 +Here are the answers to Commodore Trivia Edition #3 for February, 1994.
 +
 +            
 +Q $020) What does the letters IEEE in IEEE-488 stand for?
 +
 +A $020) Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.
 +
 +Q $021) What was the logo of Batteries Included?
 +
 +A $021) It was a the face and hands of a man with glasses inside a circle.
 +        Early renditions of him were in black and white, while later ones had
 +        him with blond hair a a red shirt.  Some views had him actually 
 +        typing on the 64/VIC with one finger, but most just showed him, 
 +        not the keyboard.
 +
 +Q $022) The Commodore VIC-20, 64, and 128 computers emulate in software a very
 +        important integrated circuit. What is its number, and why is it 
 +        important?
 +
 +A $022) The 6551 UART IC.  It is used for RS-232 communications.
 +
 +Q $023) Commodore watches play a beautiful song for the alarm.  What is the
 +        song's title?
 +
 +A $023) Fleur-de-lis.  The "Godfather" theme.
 +
 +Q $024) The C2N style Commodore tape decks are impressive in handling errors.
 +        How many times is a single program stored onto tape?
 +
 +A $024) Twice, second copy is placed right after the first.  That means, even
 +        if you get a load error on load, you might be able to just run the 
 +        program anyway, as a load puts the first copy in memory, and verifies
 +        it against the second copy.
 +        
 +Q $025) What is a jiffy?
 +
 +A $025) A jiffy is 1/60th of a second.  It is the same on PAL and NTSC
 +        Commodore computers.
 +
 +Q $026) What is the screen resolution of the Commodore VIC-20?
 +
 +A $026) On the VIC-I IC, the text and graphics screens are definable within
 +        limits.  Therefore, there are a number of answers that are correct:
 +
 +        The default screen has (and the answers I was looking for):
 +
 +        Text:     22H x 23V = 506 characters
 +        Graphics: 176H x 184V = 32384 pixels
 +        
 +        However, on experimentation with a NTSC VIC-I (6560), I found that
 +        it could support a resolution of:
 +
 +        Text:     24H x 29V = 696 characters
 +        Graphics: 192H x 232V = 44544 pixels
 +
 +        Your mileage may vary, but these numbers remove all border area.
 +        (I am not sure if you can use all the pixels, since the VIC-I only
 +        allows 32768 to be used.  You might be able to flip the graphics
 +        page in the middle of the screen, but I leave that as an exercise.)
 +    
 +        The VIC-I also supports a virtual screen, which can be "panned" so
 +        that the physical screen becomes a "window" into the virtual screen.
 +        The maximum "scrollable" virtual screen on NTSC is:
 +
 +        Text:     28H x 32V? = 896 characters
 +        Graphics: 224H x 256V? = 57344 pixels
 +
 +        The VIC supports more resolution than 32V, but you can never see
 +        it since you can't scroll it into view, so the point is moot.
 +
 +        So, if I didn't thoroughly confuse you, email me and I will make
 +        sure I do!
 +     
 +Q $027) Why is the VIC-20 named the VC-20 in Germany?
 +
 +A $027) Because 'V" is pronounced 'F" in Germany, and the resulting
 +        pronunciation was a naughty word. 
 +   
 +        Commodore put one over on many people.  The VIC-20 was designed in
 +        the states and given that name due to the IC that did the graphics.
 +        When the marketing started, CBM found out the name was no good in
 +        Germany, so they quickly renamed it VC-20.  The after-the-fact
 +        Volks-Computer conjured up images of the Volkswagon car (VW), which
 +        was popular at the time for its dependability and price.  The rest is
 +        history...
 +         
 +Q $028) Why was early Commodore equipment built into such heavy enclosures?
 +
 +A $028) Simple.  Commodore made office furniture, which includes desks and
 +        filing cabinets.  They simply used the facilities and parts on hand.
 +        The fact that, at the time the PET came out, people equated physical
 +        stability of a machine as an indication of its worth, served only to
 +        reinforce the decision.  Also, the system had to hold up the built-in
 +        monitor.
 +   
 +        Most people think it is due to FCC regulations.  FCC regulations had
 +        not been determined at the time the PET came out, although the
 +        engineers did know that the CRT produced many electrical hazards which
 +        could be alleviated with a shielded metal case.  Commodore has always
 +        been a "cheap" company, so the fact that they could get good
 +        shielding in-house at almost no cost proved to be the overriding
 +        factor. It might interest some to note that, even with the metal
 +        case, early PETs had foil inside as a secondary shield.  The reason
 +        has to do with the keyboard being mostly plastic, as the shield fit
 +        directly underneath, but the reason for it remains a mystery to me.
 +             
 +Q $029) What two BASIC 2.0 commands might still work if mispelled?
 +   
 +A $029) The answers I was looking for are END and STOP, although someone
 +        correctly pointed out that GO TO can be construed as a mispelling.
 +        Also, print#, get#, and input# might work if the '#' was omitted and 
 +        the program was getting data to screen or keyboard.
 +
 +        Although the following aren't really the result of mispelled commands,
 +        I put them in, since you could stretch the definition of mispelled to
 +        include them.
 +
 +        LET would work if it was left out, since LET was an optional 
 +        keyword.  Commands of the form <keyword> <number or variable> would
 +        work if letters were tacked onto the end. (example: RUNDY., prg has 
 +        a valid line 0, and DY = 0).  Finally, LOAD"jim",8,1garbage would
 +        work due to the way LOAD absolute worked, but that is a stretch!
 +     
 +Q $02A) What does CIA stand for? (not the U.S. CIA!)
 +
 +A $02A) CIA = Complex Interface Adapter.  The german Magazine 64'er calls
 +        it a Control Interface Adapter, but that is not its official
 +        name.
 +     
 +Q $02B) (hard one) What is the key VIC capability that makes full-screen
 +        hires graphics possible on the _VIC-20_?
 +
 +A $02B) A lot of people answered redefinable characters, but that alone does
 +        not provide FULL-SCREEN graphics. 256 8*8 cells gives you a little
 +        over 1/2 of the screen in graphics, but the VIC has the ability to 
 +        make each character cell be 8*16, which gives enough pixels to map
 +        the entire default screen.
 +     
 +Q $02C) How many cassette ports does the CBM 8032 computer have?
 +
 +A $02C) Two.  One on back, one on side near the back.
 +     
 +Q $02D) What 5 bytes must appear in every Commodore 64 autostart cartrdge and
 +   what location in memory must they be placed at?
 +
 +A $02D) CBM80 at $8004.  The letters must have bit 7 set. So, the actual
 +        PETSCII codes are 195, 194, 205, 056, 048.
 +                     $c3, $c2, $cd, $30, $30 in HEX
 +
 +Q $02E) What is the correct Commodore technical term for "Sprites"?
 +
 +A $02E) MOBs, or Movable Object Blocks.
 +     
 +Q $02F) (Three parter, all parts must be correct)  "Push-wrap-crash" is a
 +        nickname for a condition that can lock up an old-style C=64. 
 +        What causes it? 
 +        How can it be avoided (besides not doing it)?
 +        What is the only way out once it has occured (besides rebooting)?
 +
 +A $02F) Wow, I got so many responses to this!  This question actually
 +        dealt with a typical user, but people sent in descriptions of
 +        what the code does and how to patch it. So, there are two sets
 +        of answers to this:
 +
 +    User Answer:
 +
 +    1) If you put the cursor at the bottom of the screen and type 82 characters
 +       (not 81) and then trying to delete back to the 78th one.  
 +    2) Any of the following will work:
 +    
 +          Do not use the following colors for the cursor: red, blue, yellow, 
 +          light red, dark grey, light blue, light gray.
 +    
 +          Some people devised a IRQ wedge that will recover from the lockup.
 +    
 +          Have the following lines as the first lines of a program:
 +          10 open 15,8,15 20 input#15,a$.
 +    3) There are actually two ways to recover.  They are:
 +    
 +          If you have a reset button installed on the 64, reset the machine,
 +          then load and run an unnew program.  (I accepted this, but I figured
 +          most people would assume this much)
 +    
 +          If you have a tape drive installed, press either Shift-3 or move a
 +          joystick installed in Port 1 in the UP direction.  Then, respond to
 +          the directions on the screen "PRESS PLAY ON TAPE". Next, press
 +          RUN-STOP to stop the tape load. 
 +    
 +
 +    What really happens: (I can't prove this)
 +    
 +    1) The user types the line of text and the scroll code is invoked.
 +       The first two lines become linked as one logical line, and the
 +       third line is treated as a new line. 
 +    
 +       The user deletes the 82nd and the 81st character and then hits delete
 +       while in the first column of the third line.  Since the delete will put
 +       the cursor back up into the second line, which is linked with the first,
 +       the KERNAL gets confused and thinks the second line is at the bottom of
 +       the screen. Remember, the "cursor" is actually constructed by a
 +       combinations of using reverse characters and changing the color RAM
 +       nybble for that screen location.  Thus, when the cursor gets "erased"
 +       from the first column of the last line, the KERNAL thinks the color
 +       nyble for it is at $DC00, which is 40 bytes off from the actual
 +       position.  $DC00 is actually Port A for CIA #1, which is where the
 +       kernal writes the column of the keyboard it wishes to scan. Because the
 +       KERNAl is messed up, it puts the color nybble for where it thinks the
 +       cursor was into this location. (That is why there is a connection
 +       between cursor color and this bug.  
 +    
 +       Now, the system integrity has been compromised, but it does not show
 +       yet.  The user proceeds to delete the 80th character.  As the user
 +       deletes the 79th character, the bad value in $DC00 goes to work and
 +       fools the KERNAl into thinking SHIFT/RUN-STOP has been pressed.  It also
 +       pretty much disables the keyboard.  
 +    
 +    2) Since the Color RAM is what the KERNAl gets confused about, the solution
 +       was to not use certain bit patterns of colors:
 +    
 +          RED         0010
 +          CYAN        0011
 +          BLUE        0110
 +          YELLOW      0111
 +          LIGHT RED   1010
 +          DARK GRAY   1011
 +          LIGHT BLUE  1110
 +          LIGT GRAY   1111
 +    
 +          OK Colors:
 +    
 +          BLACK       0000
 +          WHITE       0001
 +          PURPLE      0100
 +          GREEN       0101
 +          ORANGE      1000
 +          BROWN       1001
 +          MEDIUM GRAY 1100
 +          LIGHT GREEN 1101
 +
 +          All of the BAD colors have bit 1 set.  I have no idea what the
 +          significance of that is.
 +
 +    3) You needed to get out of the tape load code, but you only had so many
 +       keys that were still active.  So, if you followed the directions on
 +       the screen, you could break out.  Since the tape load code uses CIA #1
 +       for its operations, it would take over the IC and then restore it
 +       to a correct state when either the load was stopped or the load
 +       completed.  Now, that is amazing!
 +
 +       (Someone is free to check up on me concerning this, since I do not
 +        have a Rev 1 ROM to try out.  If someone has one, I would like to
 +        have a copy of it on disk or in email.  And if someone has the
 +        information on this bug from either the May 1984 Gazette p108, or
 +        from the COMPUTE! Toolkit Kernal VIC20/64, I would like a copy.)
 +
 +
 +Here are the answers to Commodore Trivia Edition #4 for February, 1994.
 +
 +
 +Q $030) On a Commodore 64, what is the amount of RAM available for BASIC
 +        programs to reside in?
 +
 +A $030) Some people over-answered this question.  The correct answer is
 +        38911 bytes, which is what the BASIC screen says.  Now, it is true
 +        that BASIC can use $C000-$CFFF, and some zero pages is easily used
 +        by BASIC, but it is non-trivial to get BASIC to use these areas.
 +        The math comes out to:  $0801 (2048) to $9FFF (40959) - 1 (0 in
 +        location 2048).  Please note that this is not the maximum size of
 +        a standard BASIC program, even if it does not use variables, since
 +        BASIC steals 3 bytes at the end of the program to determine the end.
 +
 +Q $031) Name one Commodore computer (pre-Amiga) that used two general purpose
 +        microprocessors?
 +
 +A $031) There are two (or more) answers to this question.  The obvious answer
 +        is the Commodore 128, but the Commodore SuperPET (SP9000) had two,
 +        also.  There was also an optional card to add another processor to
 +        the B-series.  Note that some Commodore peripherals also had two
 +        (or more) microprocessors, but that is another question.
 +
 +Q $032) What are they?
 +
 +A $032) Commodore 128: 8502(6510 clone) and Z80.  SuperPET: 6502 and 6809.
 +        B-series: 6509 and 8088.
 +
 +Q $033) Who was the Chief Executive Officer of CBM when the Commodore VIC-20
 +        (VC-20) was introduced?
 +
 +A $033) According to my sources, it is none other than Jack Tramiel.  While
 + some claim Irving Gould as the man-in-charge since he had
 +        controlling interest at the time, the CEO was Jack.  Whether he was
 +        in charge or not is left up to the reader.
 +
 +Q $034) the Commodore 64 and 128 (among others) have a TOD feature.  What does
 +        TOD stand for?
 +
 +A $034) TOD = Time Of Day.  The 6526 Complex Interface Adapter is the holder
 + of the TOD clock, which can be used in lieu of the system jiffy
 + system clock to time things, as it does not suffer from interruptions
 +        to service I/O and screen.  Note that the standard kernal uses the
 + system clock for TI and TI$, not the TOD clock.
 +
 +Q $035) What location in the Commodore 64 Kernal holds the version number?
 +
 +A $035) $ff80 (65408).
 +
 +Q $036) The first computer Commdore sold was the KIM-1.  How much RAM was
 +        available on the KIM-1?
 +
 +A $036) 1.125K or 1024+128 = 1152 bytes.
 +
 +Q $037) Who designed the architecture for the 6502 integrated circuit?
 +
 +A $037) Chuck Peddle
 +
 +Q $038) What was the original name of the company that produced the 6502?
 +
 +A $038) MOS Technologies
 +
 +Q $039) What did the name stand for?
 +
 +A $039) MOS = Metal Oxide Semiconductor, which has three major families:
 +        NMOS: Negative MOS, PMOS: Positive MOS, and CMOS: Complementary MOS.
 +        MOS Technologies produced mainly NMOS ICs, hence the use of NMOS
 +        technology for the 6502 and 6510.
 +
 +Q $03A) Commodore acquired the company and renamed it to...?
 +
 +A $03A) CSG = Commodore Semiconductor Group.  The renaming was not
 +        instantaneous, happening a number of months(years) after the
 +        acquisition.
 +
 +Q $03B) The Commodore VIC-20 graphics were powered by the VIC-I (6560)
 +        integrated circuit.  Was the chip designed for the computer, or was
 +        the computer designed for the chip?
 +
 +A $03B) The VIC-I 6560-61, was designed 2 years prior to the design of the
 +        VIC-20 computer.  It was designed to be built into video games, but
 +        no one wanted to use it, so Commodore made their own system
 +        around it to recoup losses.
 +
 +Q $03C) The VIC-20 had a Video Interface Chip (VIC) inside it, yet that was
 +        not what the 'VIC' in the model name expanded to.  What did it
 +        expand to?
 +
 +A $03C) VIC-20 = Video Interface Computer-20.  The 20 was a rounding down
 +        of the amount of memory in the VIC: ~22K.  Michael Tomczyk, who got
 +        stuck with the job of deciding on the name, did the rounding.
 +
 +Q $03D) The most widely known disk drive for Commodore computers is the 1541.
 +        how much RAM does the 1541 have?
 +
 +A $03D) 2048 bytes, or 2kB RAM. It is mapped at $0000-$07FF.
 +
 +Q $03E) On every Commodore disk, the drive stores a copy of the BAM.  What
 +        does BAM stand for?
 +
 +A $03E) BAM = Block Allocation Map, or Block Availability Map.  I am checking
 + sources to figure out which one is the real McCoy.
 +
 +Q $03F) Now, for those into 6502 machine language.  What instruction was not
 +        available on the first 6502 chips?
 +
 +A $03F) ROR (ROtate Right) was not available until after June, 1976.  However,
 +        all Commodore VICs and C64s should have this instruction.  Some people
 +        gave instructions that are found on the 65c02, designed by Western
 +        Design Center, and licensed to many companies.  However, the 65c02
 +        itself occurs in two flavors, and neither are used in any stock
 +        Commodore product I know of.
 +
 +
 +Here are the answers to Commodore Trivia Edition #5 for April, 1994.
 +
 +
 +Q $040) The company that produces The Big Blue Reader, a program that allows
 +        reading and writing of IBM formatted disk in 1571s and 1581s, is
 +        called SOGWAP.  What does SOGWAP stand for?
 +
 +A $040) Son Of God With All Power.  They also market the Bible on diskettes.
 +
 +Q $041) What version of DOS does the Commodore 8280 8 inch dual drive have?
 +
 +A $041) The 8280 has version 3.0.  Many have not ever seen this IEEE-488
 +        compatible drive used on some PETs.  It has the same DOS version
 +        that is in the D90XX hard drives, and could read 250kB and 500kB
 +        IBM formatted disks, as well as some CP/M formats.  Note that although
 +        this version number is used on the 1570/71 disk drives, the code is
 +        different.
 +
 +Q $042) What was the color of the original Commodore 64 case?
 +
 +A $042) Some early versions of the Commodore 64 were housed in VIC-20 color
 +        cases, so off-white is the correct answer.
 +        
 +Q $043) On an unexpanded Commodore 64, how does one read the RAM
 +        locations $00 and $01?
 +
 +A $043) Well, you cannot do so with the CPU directly, since it resolves these
 +        locations into internal addresses.  However, the VIC II can see these
 +        addresses as external memory.  So, just make one spritexs with the
 +        first bit in the sprite set, and move it over the first two bytes, 
 +        pretending they are part of a bitmap.  By checking the sprite-to-
 +        background collision register, you can tell if the bit in the byte is
 +        set.  Email me for a more complete description. 
 +        
 +        Sven Goldt and Marko Makela get credit for this answer and the next.
 +
 +Q $044) On an unexpanded Commodore 64, how does one write the same locations?
 +
 +A $044) It seems the 6510 generates a valid R/W signal any time it does an 
 +        internal read or write.  This is to be expected, since the 6510
 +        internal registers were grafted onto a 6502 core processor.  
 +        Howevere, the address lines are also valid during any internal read
 +        or write, since failure to do so may write the data on the data bus
 +        to some invalid address.  The data on the bus, however, comes not from
 +        the CPU, but from residual effects of the data last read of written by
 +        the VIC chip.  Thus, by programming the VIC chip to read data from
 +        some known location, and by placing relevant data in that location, a
 +        write to location $00 or $01 will place the data from that last read
 +        VIC location into $00 or $01.  This is usually accomplished by placing
 +        the data to be written out into location $3fff, which the VIC fetches
 +        during the time the border is being displayed.  By triggering a
 +        routine when the raster hits the bottom border, you can copy location
 +        $3fff to $00 or $01.
 +
 +Q $045) What is 'CB2 Sound', and on what computers was it popular?
 +
 +A $045) This is the sound made by sending square out of the 6522 IC on some
 +        Commodore computers.  It is called 'CB2', since that is the name of
 +        the pin on the 6522 that outputs the waveform.  I won't go into a
 +        complete description, except to say that most models of the PET
 +        had the capability, and most PET owners used it as the ONLY sound
 +        source, since the PETs did not have a sound chip.  Although the VIC
 +        did have some sound capabilities, by that time Commodore had 
 +        realized its widespread use and included some information on it in
 +        the Commodore VIC-20 Programmer's Reference Guide.  For more info,
 +        reach for your nearest VIC PRG and look at page 232.
 +
 +Q $046) in question $021, the Batteries Included logo description was asked
 +        for.  Now, what is the name of the man in the logo?
 +
 +A $046) "Herbie"  Jim Butterfield supplied me with this one.
 +
 +Q $047) Why was the Commodore VIC-20 produced with so many 1K chips in it?
 +        (Hint: it had little to do with the cost of SRAM at the time)
 +
 +A $047) Jack (Tramiel) decreed that Commodore had a surplus of 1K chips,
 +        so he didn't care how much memory it had, as long as the designers
 +        used 1K SRAMs.
 +
 +Q $048) What does ADSR stand for?
 +
 +A $048) ADSR = Attack, Decay, Sustain, Release.  These are the four values
 +        specified to define a SID waveform envelope.
 +
 +Q $049) In question $035, it was learned that the Commodore 64 kernal
 +        revision number is stored at $ff80 (65408).  Now, what is the number
 +        stored there for:
 +
 +        a) The first revision?
 +        b) The PET64 (4064)?
 +
 +A $049) a) 170. (Yep, this was prior to 0!)
 +        b) 100. (The PET 64 uses this value to adjust the startup logo
 +                 accordingly.)
 +
 +Q $04A) Who was the mastermind behind the original Commodore Kernal?
 +
 +A $04A) John Feagan.  He had intended it to provide upward compatibility
 +        for future computer systems.  Unfortunately, the kernal was
 +        modified enough with each new computer system, that the idea of
 +        compatibility never really surfaced.  Still, it was a nice try.
 +
 +Q $04B) Who designed the first VIC prototype?
 +
 +A $04B) There are two answers to this question.  At the time, the VIC had no
 +        name and was called the MicroPET or No Name Computer.  Jack Tramiel
 +        wanted to show some prototypes of the VIC at the 1980 Comsumer
 +        Electronics Show (CES).  The funny thing is, he got not one
 +        prototype, but TWO.  Bob Yannes, working against time, had hacked
 +        together a minimal working prototype using spare PET/CBM parts.
 +        Another prototype, brought to the show by Bill Seiler and John
 +        Feagans, had been put together after some preliminary discussions
 +        with Yannes.
 +
 +Q $04C) How many pins does a Commodore 1525 printhead have in it?
 +
 +A $04C) Trick Question.  The two 1525 printers I have show that the 1525 
 +        printhead has but one pin.  The seven dots are created by a revolving
 +        7 sided star-wheel for the platen, which presses the paper against the
 +        printhead in the seven different dot locations.
 +
 +Q $04D) Why does mentioning a PET computer in France make people chuckle?
 +
 +A $04D) PET means "FART" there.
 +
 +Q $04E) What interface IC is used to drive the IEEE-488 bus in a PET computer?
 +
 +A $04E) A 6520.  It is appropriately called a PIA (Peripheral Interface
 +        Adapter).
 +
 +Q $04F) What was the primary reason Commodore went to a serial bus with the
 +        introduction of the VIC-20?
 +
 +A $04F) Jim Butterfield supplied me with this one:
 +
 +        As you know, the first Commodore computers used the IEEE bus to
 +        connect to peripherals such as disk and printer.  I understand that
 +        these were available only from one source:  Belden cables.  A
 +        couple of years into Commodore's computer career, Belden went out
 +        of stock on such cables (military contract? who knows?).  In any
 +        case, Commodore were in quite a fix:  they made computers and disk
 +        drives, but couldn't hook 'em together! So Tramiel issued the
 +        order:  "On our next computer, get off that bus.  Make it a cable
 +        anyone can manufacture" And so, starting with the VIC-20 the
 +        serial bus was born.  It was intended to be just as fast as the
 +        IEEE-488 it replaced.  
 +        
 +        And it would have been, except dor one small glitch.  But that is
 +        another trivia question.
 +
 +
 +Here are the answers to Commodore Trivia Edition #6 for May, 1994.
 +
 +
 +Q $050) The Commodore 1551 Disk Drive is a parallel device.  How did it
 +        connect to the Commodore Plus/4 and C16?
 +        
 +A $050) The Commodore 1551 connected via the expansion port.  Therefore, it
 +        was a parallel device, and could work at much faster speeds.
 +
 +Q $051) How many could you attach?
 +
 +A $051) Two, The second drive cable attached to the back of the first cable.
 +        
 +Q $052) What were the addresses they used? (Not device numbers)
 +
 +A $052) The two drives were mapped into the Address space at $fec0 and $fef0
 +        of the Plus/4 or C-16.  The 6523 Triple Interface Adaptor chip is
 +        mapped in at these locations and has 8 registers each.
 +        
 +Q $053) What is the maximum number of sound octaves the VIC-20 sound generator
 +        can reach?
 +
 +A $053) This has two equally valid answers. On the Vic-20, each sound 
 +        generator has a range of 3 octaves.  However, all the sound generators
 +        together can range 5 octaves, since each sound generator is staggered
 +        one octave apart.
 +        
 +Q $054) Who wrote the reference guide that was distributed with almost every
 +        PET computer sold?
 +
 +A $054) The infamous Adam Osborne, of Osborne I fame.
 +        
 +Q $055) The box that the C64 comes in has some propaganda on the side
 +        describing the unit.  In the specifications section, it claims how
 +        many sprites can be on screen at one time?
 +
 +A $055) I neglected to note that the Commodore 64 packing box has underwent
 +        many changes.  However, for quite a while, CBM used a blue box with
 +        many views of the 64, and a specification list on on side of the box.
 +        On that spec list, it claims that the the 64 can have "256 
 +        independently controlled objects, 8 on one line."  Why is this
 +        important?  It gives us a clue that the VIC-II designers figured people
 +        would and could use the interrrupts on the VIC-II to change sprite
 +        pointers.
 +        
 +Q $056) The Commodore Plus/4 computer contained the first integrated software
 +        package to be placed in a personal computer.  What was the name of the
 +        software package?
 +
 +A $056) The package was called "3+1".
 +        
 +Q $057) What popular computer software did the software package parody?
 +
 +A $057) Lotus 1-2-3.
 +        
 +Q $058) One familiar Commodore portable computer was called the SX-64.
 +        What did SX really stand for?
 +
 +A $058) Depending on whom you believe, the SX stands for two things.  If you
 +        choose to believe Jack Tramiel, the SX stands for "sex", since Jack
 +        has been quoted as saying, "Business is like sex, You have to be
 +        involved" This is a plausible answer, as Jack usually picked the
 +        names of the computers.  However, if you don't buy that, here is the 
 +        marketing version.  SX stands for Single Drive Executive, as the 
 +        portable 64 was called the Executive 64.  There was to have been a DX
 +        model, which would have had two drives.  You decide.
 +        
 +Q $059) Who (what person) invented the Sound Interface Device (SID) chip?
 +
 +A $059) Bob Yannes, who also worked on one of the VIC prototypes, developed
 +        this chip.
 +        
 +Q $05A) The ill-fated UltiMax (later called the MAX Machine) contained a
 +        number of Commodore 64 features.  However, it did not share the 64's
 +        feature of 64kB RAM.  How much RAM did the MAX have?
 +
 +A $05A) A whopping 2 kilobytes.  If you plugged in the BASIC cartridge, 
 +        memory dropped to .5 kilobyte or 512 bytes.  No wonder CBM scrapped
 +        this one.
 +        
 +Q $05B) What famous person was featured in U.S. television advertising for
 +        the VIC-20?
 +
 +A $05B) William Shatner.  Yes, Captain James T. Kirk himself did the ads.
 +        He was not, however, in uniform, since CBM did not have rights to
 +        Star Trek of any sort.
 +        
 +Q $05C) What company designed the first VICModem?
 +
 +A $05C) Anchor Automation.  Sometimes called the "Most Inexpensive Modem", 
 +        the VICModem was designed to be sold for under $100 when most were
 +        $400 or more.  The secret to the cost containment was the ability to 
 +        use what we soetimes think of as a disadvantage of the User Port to
 +        the modem's advantage.  The TTL level RS-232 signals did not need to
 +        be buffered before driving the modem, and the +5 volt power available
 +        through the User Port just was not available through normal RS-232
 +        lines.  Not having the already TTL level signals would have meant 
 +        extra components that would have increased case size and cost, and not
 +        having the on-board power would have meant a power connector and power
 +        supply would need to be bundled.  Being one of those people who used
 +        the first VICModem, I can tell you it was worth the hassle.
 +        
 +Q $05D) Everyone has seen or heard of BYTE Magazine.  Known for technical
 +        articles in the 80's, and coverage of PC products in the 90's, BYTE
 +        was founded by Wayne Green.  What Commodore computer magazine did
 +        Wayne Green later publish?
 +
 +A $05D) RUN Magazine.  As of right now, CMD has purchased the rights to RUN.
 +        
 +Q $05E) (Three part question) What are the official names of the colors
 +        used on the VIC-20:
 +
 +        a)  case?
 +        b)  regular typewriter keys?
 +        c)  function keys?
 +
 +A $05E) a)  ivory.
 +        b)  chocolate brown.
 +        c)  mustard.
 +        
 +Q $05F) Commodore is set up as a ___________ chartered company.  Name
 +        the missing country.
 +
 +A $05F) Bahamas.  Doing so gave CBM a great tax break.  With the tax rate in
 +        the Bahamas as low as 1%, more money could be kept from the 
 +        governments.
 +
 +
 +Here are the answers to Commodore Trivia Edition #7 for May, 1994.
 +
 +
 +Q $060) When you turn on stock Commodore 16, how many bytes free does it
 +        report?
 +
 +A $060) According to the initial power-up indication on the monitor, a stock
 +        Commodore 16 has 12277 bytes free for BASIC program use. A number od
 +        people have calculated 12287 bytes, so the power-on message may be in
 +        error.  I guess it is time to dig out the C-16 and power it up.
 +
 +Q $061) How many does a stock Plus/4 report?
 +
 +A $061) According to its initial power-up message, the Plus/4 has 60671
 +        bytes free.
 +
 +Q $062) What was the VIC-20's subtitle?
 +
 +A $062) "The Friendly Computer"
 +
 +Q $063) What personality announced the birth of the Commodore 64 in
 +        Christmas advertisements?
 +
 +A $063) Though not well-known outside of the US, Henry Morgan introduced the
 +        new Commodore 64 computer system in the US.  In other countries, the
 +        answers differ, as countries like Finland had the Statue of Liberty
 +        announce the C64 birth.
 +
 +Q $064) What was the name of the monitor program included in the Plus/4?
 +
 +A $064) TEDMon.  TED, as you know, stood for Text Editing Device.
 +
 +Q $065) How many sectors per track are there for tracks 1-17 on a 1541?
 +
 +A $065) 21.
 +
 +Q $066) There are two programs running in the Commodore single-6502 drives
 +        (1541,1571,1541 II,1581).  What is the interpreter program called?
 +
 +A $066) The interpreter program is called the Interface Processor (IP).  It
 +        handles the dispatching of all commands sent to the drive, as well
 +        as corrdinating the flow of traffic between the disk and the computer.
 +
 +Q $067) How do you do a hard reset on a Plus/4 ?
 +
 +A $067) First, we need to define hard-reset.  A reset differs from a power-
 + cycle, since the latter does not retain the RAM contents.  In this
 + case, the answer is analogous to the RUN/STOP-RESTORE combination
 + found on the 64 and VIC-20.  Hold down RUN/STOP and CTRL and press the
 + recessed reset button on the side of the computer.  I believe this
 +  works for the C-16 as well.
 +     
 +Q $068) Where did the name "Commodore" come from?
 +
 +A $068) Rumor has it that Jack Tramiel always wante to use a naughtical term,
 +        but most had been already used.  However, one day he watched a moving
 +        company van pass by on the street with the name he decided to use as 
 +        soon as he saw it: Commodore.
 +
 +Q $069) Chuck Peddle, designer of the 6502, left Commodore twice. Where did he
 +        go first?
 +
 +A $069) He went to Apple Computer.  He stayed with them briefly, but it seems
 +        that Apple and Chuck got along even worse than Commodore and Chuck.
 +
 +Q $06A) Where did he eventually go when he left for good?
 +
 +A $06A) First, he went off to start a company called Sirius, which died almost
 +        before it started due to a lawsuit over the name.  Then, he and some
 +        former Commodore designers came up with the "Victor" computer, which
 +        did modestly, but never took off.
 +
 +Q $06B) What does the Kernal routine at $FFD2 do in terms of function and what
 +        parameters get passed and returned?
 +
 +A $06B) The KERNAL routine at $FFD2 on all Commodore 8 bit machines outputs the
 +        PETSCII character code contained in the .A register to the current
 +        output device.  The carry flag indicates the presence of an error on
 +        return.
 +
 +Q $06C) What Commodore drive has a hidden message?
 +
 +A $06C) The 1581 has a couple such hidden messages.  In the idle loop of the 
 +        IP, the text says "am i lazy???...no just wanted to save a few ms...".
 +        Also, in the same loop, the following can be found: "this is lazy!!!".
 +        Lastly, the credits in the 1581 roms are: "Software david siracusa.
 +        hardware greg berliNZDedicatedto my wife lisA" (Note: the N in berliN
 +        and the A in lisA is typical of how strings are stored in the 1581, 
 +        last byte has bit 7 set.  The Z after berliN appears to have been a 
 +        typo, but I can't say for sure.  I have a program that displays these.
 +        (Email me for info.)
 +        
 +        The 1571 has the ROM authors' names hidden at the beginning of the
 +        ROM, but I don't have a 1571 to scan for them.
 +
 +Q $06D) What computer was the first to have a hidden message?
 +
 +A $06D) The PET 2001. Some said the 128 has a hidden message, but it wasn't
 + the first.
 +
 +Q $06E) What was it and how did you get it to come up?
 +
 +A $06E) By typing:
 +     wait 6502, (where x was a number between 1 and 255)
 +     the computer printed Microsoft! x times on the screen.
 +
 +Q $06F) What does NTSC stand for?
 +
 +A $06F) Truthfully, NTSC can stand for different things.  In regards to the
 +        television standard for the US, the expansion is National Television
 +        Standard Code.  However, the body that formed the standard is also 
 +        called NTSC: National Television System Committee.
 +        
 +
 +Commodore Trivia Edition #8
 +
 +   
 +Q $070) On a PET series computer, what visual power-on indication will tell
 + the user whether the computer has Revision 2 or Revision 3 ROMs?
 +
 +Q $071) The IEEE-488 interface is sometimes called the GPIB interface.  
 + What does GPIB stand for?
 +   
 +Q $072) Commodore manufactured at least two hard drives with IEEE-488
 + interfaces.  Can you name them?
 +   
 +Q $073) Why didn't buyers like the original PET-64?
 +   
 +Q $074) On a PET Revision 2 ROM, what was the largest single array size that
 + BASIC could handle?
 +   
 +Q $075) On the stock 1541, data is transmitted one bit at a time.  How many
 + bits are transferred at a time on the Commodore 1551 disk drive? 
 +   
 +Q $076) On all Commodore floppy disk drives, how fast does the disk spin?
 +    
 +Q $077) Upon first reading the Commodore 1541 Error channel after turning
 + on the disk drive, what error number and text is returned?
 +   
 +Q $078) What error number and text is returned on a 1551?
 +   
 +Q $079) Commodore printers are normally assigned to device #4, but they
 +    can be also used as device #?
 +   
 +Q $07A) What microprocessor is used in the Commodore 1551 disk drive?
 +   
 +Q $07B) When the VIC-20 was designed, the serial port throughput was roughly
 + equivalent to the throughput of the IEEE-488 bus?  Why isn't it
 + very fast in production VICs?
 +    
 +Q $07C) On Commodore computers, how much RAM is set aside as a tape buffer?
 +   
 +Q $07D) On Commodore computers, most every peripheral has a device number.
 + What is the device number of the screen?
 +       
 +Q $07E) What is the device number of the keyboard?
 +   
 +Q $07F) Commodore computers use 2's-complement notation to represent integers.
 + What is the 2's-complement hex representation of the signle byte -1? 
 +   
 +Some are easy, some are hard, try your hand at:
 +
 +      Commodore Trivia Edition #8!
 +
 +Jim Brain
 +brain@mail.msen.com
 +2306 B Hartland Road
 +Hartland, MI  48353
 +(810) 737-7300 x8528
 +
 +=============================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== RS232 Converter ======
 +<code>
 +by Walter Wickersham (shadow@connected.com)
 +
 +[Editor's note: I'm wary of there being no voltage translation but am including
 +it because I _do_ think you can get away with it... However, because this
 +magazine is free you get what you pay for... ]
 +
 +Here's a modem interface schematic for the C=64/128, with it, and around
 +$5.00, you can use almost any hayes compat. external modem.  To the best of
 +my knowedge, the 64 has a maximum baud rate (through the user port) of 2400,
 +and the 128's is 9600.
 +
 +I DO NOT know who the original author of this is, but i re-wrote it in my
 +own words, hoping it will help someone. I CLAIM NO RIGHTS TO THIS ARTICLE.
 +
 +PARTS LIST:
 +-------------
 +7404 Hex Inverter IC ($0.99 at Radio Shack)
 +Wires, solder, etc.
 +Commodore User port connector (I used one off a old 1650)
 +
 +Here It is:
 +C64/128 USER PORT          RS232 ADAPTER                RS232C
 +
 +A & N -----------------------GROUND---------------------- 1 & 7
 +B & C ---------------------2-7404
 +                             7404-1---------------------- 3
 +M -------------------------3-7404
 +                             7404-4---------------------- 2
 +H-------------------------------------------------------- 8
 +E-------------------------------------------------------- 20
 +K ------------------------------------------------------- 5
 +L ------------------------------------------------------- 6
 +
 +Pin #2n the user port MUST be connected to pin 14 of the 7404.
 +Pins A&N (ground) MUST be connected to pin 7 of the 7404.
 +
 +For those of you who don't have a pinout of the user port, here, have one.
 +         (TOP)
 + 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9-10-11-12
 + --------------------------
 + A-B-C-D-E-F-G-H-I-J--K--L-
 +        (BOTTOM)
 +
 +THIS DOES WORK, that's why i'm modeming at 2400. :->, but i sometimes
 +recieve line noise, so any upgrades to this would be appreciated (i know
 +it's not my phone line).
 +
 +=============================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== Programming the Commodore RAM Expansion Units (REUs) ======
 +<code>
 +by Richard Hable (Richard.Hable@jk.uni-linz.ac.at)
 +
 +The following article, initially written for a mailing list, describes
 +the Commodore REUs and explanes how to program them.
 +
 +Contents:
 +
 + 1) External RAM Access With REUs
 + 2) RAM Expansion Controller (REC) Registers
 + 3) How To Recognize The REU
 + 4) Simple RAM Transfer
 + 5) Additional Features
 + 6) Transfer Speed
 + 7) Interrupts
 + 8) Executing Code In Expanded Memory
 + 9) Other Useful Applications Of The REU
 +10) Comparision Of Bank Switching and DMA
 +
 +
 +1) _External RAM Access With REUs_
 +
 +The REUs provide additional RAM for the C64/128.  Three types of REUs have
 +been produced by Commodore.  These are the 1700, 1764 and 1750 with 128, 256
 +and 512 KBytes built in RAM.  However, they can be extended up to several
 +MBytes.
 +
 +The external memory can not be directly addressed by the C64 with its 16 bit
 +address space--it has to be transferred from and to the main memory of the
 +C64.  For that purpose, there is a built in RAM Expansion Controller (REC)
 +which transfers memory between the C64 and the REU using Direct Memory Access
 +(DMA).  It can also be used for other purposes.
 +
 +
 +2) _RAM Expansion Controller (REC) Registers_
 +
 +The REC is programmed by accessing its registers.  When a REU is connected
 +through the expansion port, these registers appear memory mapped in the
 +I/O-area between $DF00 and $DF0A.  They can be read and written to like VIC-
 +and SID-registers.
 +
 +$DF00: STATUS REGISTER
 +    Various information can be obtained (read only).
 +
 +  Bit 7:     INTERRUPT PENDING  (1 = interrupt waiting to be served)
 +               unnecessary
 +  Bit 6:     END OF BLOCK  (1 = transfer complete)
 +               unnecessary
 +  Bit 5:     FAULT  (1 = block verify error)
 +               set if a difference between C64 and REU memory areas
 +               was found during a compare command
 +  Bit 4:     SIZE  (1 = 256 KB)
 +               seems to indicate the size of the RAM-chips;
 +               set on 1764 and 1750, clear on 1700.
 +  Bits 3..0: VERSION
 +               contains 0 on my REU.
 +
 +$DF01: COMMAND REGISTER
 +     By writing to this register, RAM transfer or comparision can be
 +     executed.
 +
 +  Bit 7:     EXECUTE  (1 = transfer per current configuration)
 +               must be set to execute a command
 +  Bit 6:     reserved  (normally 0)
 +  Bit 5:     LOAD  (1 = enable autoload option)
 +               With autoload enabled, the address and length registers (see
 +               below) will be unchanged after a command execution.
 +               Otherwise, the address registers will be counted up to the
 +               address of the last accessed byte of a DMA + 1
 +               and the length register will be changed (normally to 1).
 +  Bit 4:     FF00
 +               If this bit is set, command execution starts immediately
 +               after setting the command register.
 +               Otherwise, command execution is delayed until write access to
 +               memory position $FF00.
 +  Bits 3..2: reserved  (normally 0)
 +  Bits 1..0: TRANSFER TYPE
 +               00 = transfer C64 -> REU
 +               01 = transfer REU -> C64
 +               10 = swap C64 <-> REU
 +               11 = compare C64 - REU
 +
 +$DF02..$DF03: C64 BASE ADDRESS
 +    16-bit C64 base address in low/high order
 +
 +$DF04..$DF06: REU BASE ADDRESS
 +    This is a three byte address, consisting of a low and
 +    high byte and an expansion bank number.
 +    Normally, only bits 2..0 of the expansion bank are valid
 +    (for a maximum of 512 KByte), the other bits are always
 +    set.
 +
 +$DF07..$DF08: TRANSFER LENGTH
 +    This is a 16 bit value containing the number of bytes to
 +    transfer or compare.
 +    The value 0 stands for 64 KBytes.
 +    If the transfer length plus the C64 base address exceeds
 +    64K, the C64 address will overflow and cause C64 memory
 +    from 0 on to be accessed.
 +    If the transfer length plus the REU base address exceeds
 +    512K, the REU address will overflow and cause REU memory
 +    from 0 on to be accessed.
 +
 +$DF09: INTERRUPT MASK REGISTER
 +    unnecessary
 +
 +  Bit 7:     INTERRUPT ENABLE  (1 = interrupt enabled)
 +  Bit 6:     END OF BLOCK MASK  (1 = interrupt on end)
 +  Bit 5:     VERIFY ERROR  (1 = interrupt on verify error)
 +  Bits 4..0: unused (normally all set)
 +
 +$DF0A: ADDRESS CONTROL REGISTER
 +    With this register, address counting during DMA can be controlled.
 +    If a base address is fixed, the same byte is used repeatedly.
 +
 +  Bit 7:     C64 ADDRESS CONTROL  (1 = fix C64 address)
 +  Bit 6:     REU ADDRESS CONTROL  (1 = fix REU address)
 +  Bits 5..0: unused (normally all set)
 +
 +
 +In order to access the REU registers in assembly language, it is convenient
 +to define labels something like this:
 +
 +  status   = $DF00
 +  command  = $DF01
 +  c64base  = $DF02
 +  reubase  = $DF04
 +  translen = $DF07
 +  irqmask  = $DF09
 +  control  = $DF0A
 +
 +
 +3) _How To Recognize The REU_
 +
 +Normally, the addresses between $DF02 and $DF05 are unused, values stored
 +there get lost.  Therefore, if e.g. the values 1,2,3,4 are written to
 +$DF02..$DF05 and do not stay there, no REU can be connected.  However, if the
 +values are there, it could be caused by another kind of module connected that
 +also uses these addresses.
 +
 +Another problem is the recognition of the number of RAM banks (64 KByte
 +units) installed.  The SIZE bit only tells if there are at least 2 (1700) or
 +4 (1764, 1750) banks installed.  By trying to access and verify bytes in as
 +many RAM banks as possible, the real size can be determined.  This can be
 +seen in the source to "Dynamic memory allocation for the 128" in Commodore
 +Hacking Issue 2.
 +
 +In any way, the user of a program should be able to choose, if and which REU
 +banks are to be used.
 +
 +
 +4) _Simple RAM Transfer_
 +
 +Very little options of the REU are necessary for the main purposes of RAM
 +expanding.  Just set the base addresses, transfer length, and then the
 +command register.
 +
 +The following code transfers one KByte containing the screen memory
 +($0400..$07FF) to address 0 in the REU:
 +
 +  lda #0
 +  sta control ; to make sure both addresses are counted up
 +  lda #<$0400
 +  sta c64base
 +  lda #>$0400
 +  sta c64base + 1
 +  lda #0
 +  sta reubase
 +  sta reubase + 1
 +  sta reubase + 2
 +  lda #<$0400
 +  sta translen
 +  lda #>$0400
 +  sta translen + 1
 +  lda #%10010000;  c64 -> REU with immediate execution
 +  sta command
 +
 +In order to transfer the memory back to the C64, replace "lda #%10010000" by
 +"lda #%10010001".
 +
 +I think, this subset of 17xx functions would be enough for a reasonable RAM
 +expansion.  However, if full compatibility with 17xx REUs is desired, also
 +the more complicated functions have to be implemented.
 +
 +5) _Additional Features_
 +
 +Swapping Memory
 +
 +With the swap-command, memory between 17xx and C64 can be exchanged. The
 +programming is the same as in simple RAM transfer.
 +
 +
 +Comparing Memory
 +
 +No RAM is transferred. Instead, the number of bytes specified in the transfer
 +length register is compared.  If there are differences, the FAULT bit of the
 +status register is set.  In order to get valid information, this bit has to
 +be cleared before comparing.  This is possible by reading the status
 +register.
 +
 +
 +Using All C64 Memory
 +
 +Normally, C64 memory is accessed in the memory configuration selected during
 +writing to the command register.  In order to be able to write to the command
 +register, the I/O-area has to be active.  If RAM between $D000 and $DFFF or
 +character ROM shall be used, it is possible to delay the execution of the
 +command by using a command byte with bit 4 ("FF00") cleared.  The command
 +will then be executed when an arbitrary value is written to address $FF00.
 +
 +Example:
 +
 +  < Set base addresses and transfer length >
 +  lda #%10000000 ; transfer C64 RAM -> REU delayed
 +  sta command
 +  sei
 +  lda $01
 +  and #$30
 +  sta $01 ; switch on 64 KByte RAM
 +  lda $FF00 ; do not change the contents of $FF00
 +  sta $FF00 ; execute DMA
 +  lda $01
 +  ora #$37
 +  sta $01 ; switch on normal configuration
 +  cli
 +
 +
 +6) _Transfer Speed_
 +
 +During DMA the CPU is halted--the memory access cycles normally available for
 +the CPU are now used to access one byte each cycle. Therefore, with screen
 +and sprites switched off, in every clock cycle (985248 per second on PAL
 +machines) one byte is transferred.  If screen is on or sprites are enabled,
 +transfer is a bit slower, as the VIC sometimes accesses RAM exclusively. 
 +Comparing memory areas is as fast as transfering.  (Comparison is stopped
 +once the first difference is found.)  Swapping memory is only half as fast,
 +because two C64 memory accesses per byte (read & write) are necessary.
 +
 +
 +7) _Interrupts_
 +
 +By setting certain bits in the interrupt mask register, IRQs at the end of a
 +DMA can be selected.  However, as the CPU is halted during DMA, a transfer or
 +comparision will always be finished after the store instruction into the
 +command register or $FF00.  Therefore, there is no need to check for an "END
 +OF BLOCK" (bit 6 of status register) or to enable an interrupt.
 +
 +
 +8) _Executing Code In Expanded Memory_
 +
 +Code in expanded memory has to be copied into C64 memory before execution. 
 +This is a disadvantage against bank switching systems. However, bank
 +switching can be simulated by the SWAP command.  This is done e.g. in RAMDOS. 
 +There, only 256 bytes of C64 memory are occupied, the 8 KByte RAM disk driver
 +is swapped in whenever needed.  Too much swapping is one reason for RAMDOS to
 +be relatively slow at sequential file access.
 +
 +
 +9) _Other Useful Applications Of The REU_
 +
 +The REC is not only useful for RAM transfer and comparison.
 +
 +One other application (used in GEOS) is copying C64 RAM areas by first
 +transferring them to the REU and then transferring them back into the desired
 +position in C64 memory.  Due to the fast DMA, this is about 5 times faster
 +than copying memory with machine language instructions.
 +
 +Interesting things can be done by fixing base addresses:  By fixing the REU
 +base address, large C64 areas can be fast filled with a single byte value. 
 +It is also possible to find the end of an area containing equal bytes very
 +fast, e.g. for data compression.
 +
 +Fixing the C64 base address is interesting if it points to an I/O-port. 
 +Then, data can be written out faster than normally possible.  It would be
 +possible to use real bitmap graphics in the upper and lower screen border by
 +changing the "magic byte" (byte with the highest address accessable by the
 +VIC) in every clock cycle. Therefore, of course, the vertical border would
 +have to be switched off.
 +
 +Generally the REC could be used as graphics accelerator, e.g. to copy bitmap
 +areas or other display data fast into the VIC-addressable 16 KByte area.
 +
 +
 +10) _Comparision Of Bank Switching and DMA_
 +
 +When comparing bank switching and DMA for memory expansion, I think, DMA is
 +the more comfortable method to program. It is also faster in most cases. 
 +The disadvantage of code execution not possible in external memory can be
 +minimized by always copying only the necessary parts into C64 memory. 
 +Executing the code will then take much more time than copying it into C64
 +memory.
 +
 +=============================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== A Different Perspective: Three-Dimensional Graphics on the C64 ======
 +<code>
 +by Stephen Judd (judd@merle.acns.nwu.edu) and
 +   George Taylor (yurik@io.org)
 +
 +Introduction
 +------------
 +
 +We've all seen them: neat-looking three-dimensional graphics tumbling around
 +on a computer.  But how is it done?  In particular, how would you do it on a
 +Commodore-64?  Nowadays the typical answer to the first question is "Just
 +use the functions in 3dgrphcs.lib" (or "Beats me.").  The answer to the
 +second is either "Well an elite coder like me can't let secrets like that
 +out" or else "What, you mean people still use those things?"
 +
 +So this is a little article which attempts to take some of the mystery out
 +of three dimensional graphics.  Most of the mathematics involved are very
 +simple, and the geometric concepts are very intuitive. Coding it up on a
 +C-64 is more of a challenge, especially when you want to make it fast, but
 +even then it's not too tough.  George and I wrote the code in about a week
 +(and talked about it for about a week before that).  Perhaps you will
 +appreciate this aspect more if you know that I haven't written 6510 code
 +since 1988, and until the last two days George had no computer on which to
 +test his ideas (and on the last day it died)!
 +
 +The goal of this article is that by the time you reach the end of it you
 +will be able to do your own cool-looking 3d graphics on a C64. Some of you
 +may find it patronizing at times, but I hope that it is at a level that
 +everyone can enjoy and learn something from.  And feel free to write to us!
 +
 +The first part explains some of the fundamental theoretical concepts
 +involved.  Mostly what is required is some geometric imagination, although
 +you need to know a little trigonometry, as well as how to multiply two
 +matrices together.
 +
 +The second part deals with implementing the algorithms on a computer; since
 +this is C=Hacking, it is a good assumption that the implementation is on the
 +C-64!  Most of the code is designed for speed, and lots of it is also
 +designed so that it can be called from BASIC!
 +
 +Finally, an example program which uses all of the techniques presented here
 +is included, including source.  The program rotates a cube in three
 +dimensions.
 +
 +By itself the code is not the fastest in the world; what is important here
 +are the concepts.  With a little fiddling, and maybe some loop unrolling,
 +you can get these routines going quite fast; for instance, a 26 cycle line
 +drawing routine is not hard at all using more sophisticated versions of
 +these algorithms.  This time around the code is designed for clarity over
 +quality.
 +
 +There are lots and lots of little details that are not specifically covered
 +by this article.  But if you understand all of the concepts here it
 +shouldn't be too hard to figure out the problem when something goes wrong.
 +
 +This material is the result of a week's worth of discussions on comp.sys.cbm
 +between George, myself, and several other people.  So a big thank you to
 +everyone who helped us to knock these ideas out, and we hope you find this
 +to be a useful reference!
 +
 +Incidentally, the ideas and techniques in this article aren't just for
 +drawing neat pictures; for example, a good application is the stabilization
 +of an orbiting satellite.  The mathematical ideas behind linear
 +transformations are important in, for instance, the study of dynamical
 +systems (which leads to Chaos and all sorts of advanced mathematical
 +subjects).
 +
 +But it also makes you look really cool in front of your friends.
 +
 +First Things First
 +------------------
 +
 +Before we begin, you are going to have to get a few ideas into your head. 
 +First and foremost is the coordinate system we will be using: a right-handed
 +coordinate system.  In our system, the x-axis is going to come out towards
 +you, the y-axis is going to go to your right, and the z-axis is going to go
 +"up".
 +
 +Second, you need to know a little math.  You need to know about polar
 +coordinates, and you need to know how to multiply two matrices together. 
 +The ideas are all geometric, but the computations are all (of course)
 +mathematical.
 +
 +Now, let us start thinking about a cube!
 +
 +Let's first center our cube at the origin.  Not only does this make it easy
 +to visualize, but to make our cube do things (like rotate) the way we want
 +it to we are going to have to require this.  A cube has eight corners, all
 +connected to each other in a particular way.
 +
 +There's no reason to make things complicated already, so let's put the
 +corners of the cube at x=+/-1, y=+/-1, and z=+/-1.  This gives us eight
 +points to work with: P1=[1 1 1] P2=[1 -1 1] P3=[-1 -1 1] etc.
 +
 +Minimalists may disagree, but a cube all by itself isn't all that exciting. 
 +So how do we do stuff to it?  For that matter, what kinds of stuff can we do
 +to it?
 +
 +Rotations in the Plane
 +----------------------
 +
 +One of the cool things to do with a three-dimensional object is of course to
 +rotate it.  To understand how to do this, we need to first look at rotations
 +in the plane.  A little later on, this article is going to assume you know
 +how to multiply two matrices together.
 +
 +Before starting, we need to know some important trig formulas (of course,
 +everyone knows important formulas like these, but let me just remind you of
 +them):
 +
 + cos(A+B) = cos(A)cos(B) - sin(A)sin(B)
 + sin(A+B) = cos(A)sin(B) + sin(A)cos(B)
 +
 +Let us take a look at rotations in the plane; that is, in two dimensions. 
 +Think of the typical x-y axis.  Let's say that we have a point at [x1 y1]
 +and want to rotate it by an angle B, about the origin, so that we end up at
 +the rotated coordinate [x2 y2].  What are x2 and y2?  The easiest way to
 +find them is to use polar coordinates.
 +
 +We can write the point [x1 y1] as the point (r,t), where r is the distance
 +from the origin to the point, and t is the angle from the x-axis, measured
 +counter-clockwise.  Therefore, x1 = r*cos(t) and y1=r*sin(t). If we then
 +rotate this vector by an amount B,
 +
 + x2 = r*cos(t+B)
 +    = r*(cos(t)cos(B) - sin(t)sin(B))
 +    = x1*cos(B) - y1*sin(B).
 +
 +Similarly,
 +
 + y2 = r*sin(t+B) = x1*sin(B) + y1*cos(B).
 +
 +In matrix form, this can be written as
 +
 + [x2] = [cos(B)  -sin(B)] [x1]
 + [y2]   [sin(B)   cos(B)] [y1]
 +
 +How do we extend this to three dimensions?  Easy.  The key thing to realize
 +here is that, in three dimensions, the above rotations are really rotations
 +about the z-axis.  At any point along the z-axis we could take a thin slice
 +of the three-dimensional space (so that our slice is parallel to the x-y
 +axis) and pretend that we are really in two-dimensional space.  Therefore,
 +to rotate a point about the z-axis the x- and y-equations are the same as
 +above, and the z-coordinate stays fixed.  In matrix form this is
 +
 + [x2]   [cos(B)  -sin(B)  0] [x1]
 + [y2] = [sin(B)   cos(B)  0] [y1]
 + [z2]    0        0     1] [z1]
 +
 +Similarly, it is easy to see that
 +
 + [x2]    1        0        0   ] [x1]
 + [y2] = [  0      cos(B)  -sin(B)] [y1]
 + [z2]    0      sin(B)   cos(B)] [z1]
 +
 +is a rotation about the x-axis, and that
 +
 + [x2]   [cos(B)          sin(B)] [x1]
 + [y2] = [  0        1        0   ] [y1]
 + [z2]   [-sin(B)    0      cos(B)] [z1]
 +
 +is a rotation about the y-axis.  You may have noticed that the signs of
 +sin(B) have been reversed; this is because in our right-handed coordinate
 +system the z-x plane is "backwards": in the z-x plane x increases to the
 +left, while z increases "up".
 +
 +You may be wondering why we write this all in matrix form.  The above matrix
 +equations are called linear transformations of the vector [x1 y1 z1].  There
 +are lots of deep mathematical concepts sitting right behind what looks to be
 +an easy way of writing several equations.  Entire books are written on the
 +subject, and that is as good a reason as any for me not to go into detail.
 +
 +But writing things in this way also offers us several _computational_
 +advantages.  Rotations aren't the only linear transformations; let's say
 +that I want to rotate a point about the x-axis, shear it in the y-direction,
 +reflect it through the line theta=pi/5, and rotate it through the z-axis. 
 +You could have one subroutine which did the rotation, and one that did the
 +shear, etc.  But by writing it in matrix form, the entire process is simply
 +a series of matrix multiplications.
 +
 +If you think about it you might realize that it really is the same thing no
 +matter which way you do it, but there is a fundamental difference in the
 +viewpoint of each method: one views it as a series of unrelated mathematical
 +operations each with it's own individual function, while the other method
 +views it as a series of matrix multiplications so that it's basically the
 +same thing, over and over.
 +
 +What this means for you is that if you want to rotate a point around the
 +x-axis, the y-axis, and the z-axis, you can take the matrix for each
 +transformation and multiply them all together, and then apply this one big
 +matrix to the point.  One thing to be very aware of: in general, matrix
 +multiplication is not commutative.  That is, if X is a rotation matrix about
 +the x-axis and Y is a rotation about the y-axis, it will almost never be
 +true that XY = YX.  What this means geometrically is that if you take a
 +point, rotate it around the x-axis by an amount A, then rotate it around the
 +y-axis by an amount B, you will usually end up at a different point than if
 +you first rotate it around the y-axis.
 +
 +If you are interested in learning more about rotations and their uses, a
 +good place to start is almost any book on mechanics, for instance "Classical
 +Mechanics" by Goldstein.  If you want to learn more about linear
 +transformations you can find it in any decent book on linear algebra, as
 +well as in a lot of physics texts.  There is a good introduction in Margenau
 +and Murphy "The Mathematics of Physics and Chemistry", and there is a
 +semi-OK book on linear algebra by Goldberg.
 +
 +Now we know the geometric and mathematical principles behind rotations in
 +three dimensions.  But we want to visualize this on a computer, on a
 +two-dimensional screen: we need some way of taking a point in
 +three-dimensions and bringing it down to two dimensions, but in a way that
 +fools us into thinking that it really is three-dimensional.
 +
 +What we need are projections.
 +
 +Projections
 +-----------
 +
 +Now, we could just do a simple projection and set the z-coordinate equal to
 +zero, but in doing so we have eliminated some of the information, and it
 +won't look very three-dimensional to our eyes.  So we need to think of a
 +better method.
 +
 +Sit back in your chair and imagine for a minute or two.  Imagine the three
 +coordinate axes.  Now imagine that there is a pinhole camera, with  it's
 +pinhole lens at the origin, and it's film at the plane at z=1 parallel to
 +the x-y plane.  Now we are going to take a snapshot of something.
 +
 +Maybe a little picture would help:                       
 +
 +                  |
 +                  |
 +                 /|
 +           lens / |film
 +          -----*--|------------ z-axis
 +              /   |
 +             /    |
 +            /    z=1
 +   object :-) (then again, maybe it won't!)
 +
 + What does this object look like on the film?
 +
 +Let's say one of the points of this something is [x y z].  Where does this
 +point come out on the film?  Since the lens is at the origin, we want to
 +draw the line from [x y z] through the origin (since that's where our lens
 +is) and find the point [x1 y1 1] where it hits the film.  The parametric
 +equation of this line is
 +
 + t * [x y z]
 +
 +so that we want to find the intersection of this line and the film:
 +
 + t * [x y z] = [x1 y1 1].
 +
 +The z-coordinate tells us that t*z=1, or t=1/z.  If we then substitute this
 +in the above equation, we find that
 +
 + x1 = x/z y1 = y/z
 +
 +If, instead of placing the film at z=1 we place it at z=d, we get
 +
 + x1 = d*x/z y1 = d*y/z
 +
 +These then are the projection equations.  Geometrically you can see that by
 +changing d all you will do is to "magnify" the object on the film. Anyone
 +who has watched an eclipse with a little pinhole camera has seen this.
 +
 +By the way, if you stare at the above picture for a while, you may realize
 +that, in that geometric model, the object gets turned upside-down on the
 +film.
 +
 +Now that we have a physical model of the equations that have been thrown
 +around, let's look at what we've been doing.
 +
 +Consider a cube centered at the origin.  Already there is a problem above if
 +z=0.  What if one side of the cube has part of it's face below the x-y plane
 +(negative z) and part above the x-y plane?  If you draw another picture and
 +trace rays through the origin, you'll see one part of the face at one end of
 +the film (negative z, say), and the other part way the heck out at the other
 +end!  And the two parts don't touch, either!
 +
 +So we need to be careful.  In the geometric picture above, we assumed the
 +object was a fair distance away from the lens.  Currently we have our lens
 +at the center of our cube, so something needs to move! Since rotations are
 +defined about the origin we can't just redefine the cube so that the
 +vertices are out at, say, z=2 and z=3.  So what we need to do is to move the
 +camera away from the cube.  Or, if you want to think of it another way, we
 +need to move the cube away from the camera before we take a picture of it.
 +
 +In this case the translation needs to be done in the z-direction. The new
 +projection equations are then
 +
 + x1 = d*x/(z-z0) y1 = d*y/(z-z0)
 +
 +Where z0 is a translation amount that at the very least makes sure that
 +z-z0 < 0.
 +
 +Now not only have we eliminated possible problems with dividing by zero, but
 +the mathematics now match the physical model.
 +
 +Some of you might want to think about the less-physical situation of putting
 +the object _behind_ the film, i.e. to the right of the film in the above
 +picture.
 +
 +As usual, there are some deeper mathematics lurking behind these equations,
 +called projective geometry.  Walter Taylor has written a book with a fine
 +introduction to the subject (at least, I think the book was published; my
 +copy is an old preprint).
 +
 +Implementation
 +--------------
 +
 +Now that we've got the theory under our belt, we need to think about
 +implementing it on the computer.  As a concession to all the programmers who
 +immediately skipped to this section, most of the discussion will be at a
 +reasonably high level.
 +
 +One thing you need to understand is 8-bit signed and unsigned numbers.  Here
 +is a quick review: an 8-bit unsigned number ranges from 0..255.  An 8-bit
 +signed number ranges from -128..127 and is written in two's-complement form. 
 +In an 8-bit two's-complement number bits zero through six work like they
 +usually do, but the seventh (high) bit represents the sign of the number in
 +a special way.  To find the 8-bit two's-complement of a number subtract it
 +from 256.  Example: what is -21 in two's complement notation?  It is 256-21
 += 235 = $EB.  What is the complement of -21?  It is 256-235 = 21 -- like
 +magic.  Another way to think about it is like a tape counter: 2 is $02, 1 is
 +$01, 0 is $00, -1 is $FF, -2 is $FE, etc.  And what is 24-21 in two's
 +complement? It is: 24 + -21 = $EE + $EB = $0103.  Throw away the carry
 +(subtract 256) and we come out with... $03!
 +
 +Onwards!
 +
 +First, we need to decide what language to use.  You and I both know the
 +answer here: BASIC!  Or maybe not.  We need speed here, and speed on a
 +Commodore 64 is spelled a-s-s-e-m-b-l-y.
 +
 +Next, we need to decide what kind of math we want to use, signed or
 +unsigned.  Since the cosines and sines are going to generate negative and
 +positive numbers in funny ways, we definitely want to use signed numbers. 
 +The alternative is to have lots of code and overhead to handle all the
 +cases, and if we put it in two's-complement form the computer does most of
 +the work for us.
 +
 +How big should the numbers be?  Since we are going for speed here, the
 +obvious choice is 8-bits.  But this restricts us to numbers between
 +-128..127, is that OK?  The size of our grid is 0..127 x 0..127, so this is
 +perfect!  But it does mean that we need to be very careful. For instance,
 +consider the expression (a+b)/2.  What happens if a=b=64? These are two
 +numbers within our range of numbers, and the expression evaluates to 64,
 +which is also in our range, BUT: if you evaluate the above in two's
 +complement form, you will find different answers depending on how you
 +evaluate it (i.e. (a+b)/2 will not give the same answer as a/2 + b/2, which
 +will give the correct answer).
 +
 +Now we've got another problem: sine and cosine range between negative one
 +and one.  To represent these floating point numbers as 8-bit signed integers
 +the idea will be to multiply all floating point numbers by a fixed amount. 
 +That is, instead of dealing with the number 0.2, we use the number 64*0.2 =
 +12.8 = 13, and divide the end result by 64.  As usual, we are trading
 +accuracy for speed, although it will turn out to make little difference
 +here.
 +
 +Why did I pick 64?  Obviously we want to pick some factor of two to make the
 +division at the end simple (just an LSR).  128 is too big.  32 doesn't give
 +us much accuracy.  We also have to consider problems in expression
 +evaluation (see the above example of (a+b)/2), but as we shall see 64 will
 +work out nicely.
 +
 +Now that we have accomplished the difficult task of decision making, we now
 +need to move on to the simple task of implementation, starting with
 +rotations.
 +
 +Implementation: Rotations
 +-------------------------
 +
 +We've got some more heavy-duty decision making ahead of us. We could
 +implement this is several ways.  We could apply each rotation individually,
 +that is, we could rotate around the z-axis, then use these rotated points
 +and rotate them around the y-axis, etc.
 +
 +Well, yes, that would work, but... each rotation is nine multiplications. 
 +Each multiplication involves a lot of work, plus we have to shift the result
 +by our fixed amount each time.  We would not only be using huge amounts of
 +time, but we would lose a lot of accuracy in the process.  Computationally
 +speaking, this is called a "bad idea".
 +
 +Once again, mathematics saves the day: here is where we get the payoff for
 +writing the equations as an algebraic system (a matrix).  If X is the
 +transformation around the x-axis, Y the transformation around the y-axis,
 +and Z the transformation around the z-axis, then this is the equation to
 +transform a vector v by rotating the point first around the z-axis, then the
 +y-axis, then the x-axis:
 +
 + XYZv = v'
 +
 +where v' is the new point after all the rotation transformations. (You might
 +call it a conflagration of rotation transformations). Now the magic of
 +linear algebra begins to work: operations are associative, which is a fancy
 +way of saying that (AB)C = A(BC); For us this means that I can multiply all
 +three matrices X Y and Z together to get a single new matrix M:
 +
 + M = XYZ
 + Mv= v'
 +
 +"But," you may say, "we have to do the same number of multiplications to get
 +M as we do to apply each rotation separately!  How is this supposed to
 +help?"  This is how it is supposed to help:
 +
 + 1) We now have a single matrix which describes ALL the rotations.
 +    For a single point we haven't gained much, but if we have
 +    a lot of points (and a cube has eight), transforming every
 +    point is now a single matrix multiplication.  In other words,
 +    if we have a lot of points to transform we get a HUGE savings
 +    computationally.
 +
 + 2) We can take advantage of trigonometric identities and in so
 +    doing make the computation of M very simple.
 +
 +Computationally speaking, this is known as a "good idea".
 +
 +To multiply the three rotation matrices together, we need to take advantage
 +of a few trigonometric properties.  We need the two identites mentioned
 +earlier:
 +
 + sin(a+b) = sin(a)cos(b) + cos(a)sin(b)
 + cos(a+b) = cos(a)cos(b) - sin(a)sin(b)
 +
 +We will also use the fact that cosine is even and sine is odd, that is
 +
 + cos(-a) = cos(a)
 + sin(-a) = -sin(a)
 +
 +Using the above identities it is easy to see that
 +
 + sin(a)sin(b) = (cos(a-b) - cos(a+b))/2
 + cos(a)cos(b) = (cos(a+b) + cos(a-b))/2
 + sin(a)cos(b) = (sin(a+b) + sin(a-b))/2
 +
 +We are going to rotate first around the z-axis by an amount sz, then the
 +y-axis by an amount sy, then the x-axis by an amount sx.  Why rotate in that
 +order?  Why not.
 +
 + M = XYZ
 +
 +If you multiply everything out (and I encourage you to do so, not only for
 +practice, but also as a double-check of my work), and use the above trig
 +identities, the result is:
 +
 +     [A B C]
 + M = [D E F]
 +     [G H I]
 +
 +Where
 + A = (cos(t1)+cos(t2))/2
 + B = (sin(t1)-sin(t2))/2
 + C = sin(sy)
 + D = (sin(t3)-sin(t4))/2 + (cos(t6)-cos(t5)+cos(t8)-cos(t7))/4
 + E = (cos(t3)+cos(t4))/2 + (sin(t5)-sin(t6)-sin(t7)-sin(t8))/4
 + F = (sin(t9)-sin(t10))/2
 + G = (cos(t4)-cos(t3))/2 + (sin(t6)-sin(t5)-sin(t8)-sin(t7))/4
 + H = (sin(t3)+sin(t4))/2 + (cos(t6)-cos(t5)+cos(t7)-cos(t8))/4
 + I = (cos(t9)+cos(t10))/2
 +
 +with
 + t1 = sy-sz
 + t2 = sy+sz
 + t3 = sx+sz
 + t4 = sx-sz
 + t5 = sx+sy+sz = sx+t2
 + t6 = sx-sy+sz = sx-t1
 + t7 = sx+sy-sz = sx+t1
 + t8 = sy+sz-sx = t2-sx
 + t9 = sy-sx
 + t10= sy+sx
 +
 +How is this supposed to be the "simplified" version?  If you look closely,
 +there are no multiplies.  We can calculate the entire rotation matrix M in
 +about the same time as it would take to do two multiplications. This also
 +means that the associated problem with multiplications, loss of accuracy, is
 +now gone.
 +
 +Here is also where we need to be extremely careful.  The first entry in the
 +matrix M is the example I gave earlier about evaluating signed numbers.  How
 +do we overcome this?
 +
 +Easy!  Notice in the matrix M that, apart from element C, every term is a
 +sine or a cosine divided by two.  This is the only part of the program which
 +uses sines and cosines, so why not use the offset floating-point values
 +divided by two?  This will make more sense in a minute.
 +
 +The question arises: the above is all well and good, but how do we take the
 +sine of a number and make it fast?  The answer of course is to use a table. 
 +We used a BASIC routine to calculate the table for us (and to store the
 +numbers in two's-complement form).  Calculate the sine and cosine of every
 +angle you want ahead of time, and then just look up the number.
 +
 +The tables contain the values of sine and cosine multiplied by 64 (our
 +floating-point offset) and then divided by 2.  Since the value is already
 +divided by two, the above calculation becomes at the same time faster and
 +safer: faster because I don't have to keep dividing by two, and safer
 +because I don't have to worry so much about overflow.  (It can still happen,
 +but it won't if you're careful).
 +
 +Here is an example of how to calculate elements A and B above:
 +
 + LDA sy
 + SEC
 + SBC sz
 + ...
 + STA t1 ;t1=sy-sz
 + LDA sy
 + CLC
 + ADC sz
 + ...
 + STA t2 ;t2=sy+sz
 + ...
 + LDX t1
 + LDA COS,t1 ;COS is a table of cosines*offset/2
 + LDX t2
 + CLC
 + ADC COS,t2
 + STA A ;A=(cos(t1)+cos(t2))/2
 + LDX t1
 + LDA SIN,t1
 + LDX t2
 + SEC
 + SBC SIN,t2
 + STA B ;B=(sin(t1)-sin(t2))/2
 + ... ;Result is offset by a certain amount
 +
 +Note that the elements D E G and H involve a division by four, which means
 +that the code does need to perform a division by two during the calculation
 +of those elements.
 +
 +That's all there is to calculating the rotation matrix.  Next we have to
 +actually rotate the points.  We have another decision to make: do we take
 +the rotated object and rotate it by a little amount, or do we take the
 +original object and rotate it by a big amount?  Because of the way we have
 +set things up, the answer is clear: we want to increment the angle at each
 +step, and rotate the original object by this large angle (besides,
 +geometrically you can see that it will look much nicer this way).
 +
 + For a cube this is easy.  The points are P1=[1 1 1] P2=[1 -1 1]
 +P3=[-1 -1 1] P4=[-1 1 1] P5=[1 1 -1] P6=[1 -1 -1] P7=[-1 -1 -1] P8=[-1 1 -1].
 +This means that the rotations are just a series of additions and/or
 +subtractions of A,B,C,...,I!  The code implements this in a funny way,
 +partly to make these procedures easy to see, but mostly to make debugging
 +the code much easier.  It is much faster to do each rotation separately,
 +i.e.
 +
 +:P1 LDA A
 + ADC B
 + ADC C
 + STA P1.X
 + ...
 +
 +:P2 LDA A
 + SBC B
 + ADC C
 + STA P2.X
 + ...
 +:P3 LDA C
 + SBC A
 + SBC B
 + STA P3.X
 +
 +You get the idea.  Of course, the code needs to remember that it is dealing
 +with signed numbers, and to watch carry flags carefully (something the above
 +fragment does not do).
 +
 +Still worried about overflow?  If you think about it geometrically, you will
 +see that the maximum value any part of a rotated coordinate can have is
 +sqrt(3).  Since we have offset our numbers by 64, this means that, for
 +instance, the maximum possible value for A+B+C is 64*sqrt(3) which is about
 +111 -- in range of a signed 8-bit number with a little cushion for
 +additions.  In other words, we ought to be safe from overflow.
 +
 +So far we have managed to rotate all the coordinates -- a complicated series
 +of matrix operations involving trigonometric functions -- by just using a
 +bunch of additions and a bunch of table lookups!  Not too bad! Now we just
 +need to project the point.
 +
 +Implementation: Projections
 +---------------------------
 +
 +Recall that the projection equation is
 +
 + x' = d*x/(z-z0)
 + y' = d*y/(z-z0)
 +
 +It looks as if we have gone from a bunch of sneaky additions to 
 +multiplications and divisions!  Yuck.
 +
 +Well, wait a minute, maybe we can do something.  How about using a table for
 +1/(z-z0), and then just use a multiply?  Oh yeah, that's a really small
 +number.  As long as we're using a table, why not incorporate the d into it? 
 +Come to think of it, if the number weren't multiplied by the offset 64 it
 +would be a pretty reasonable number!
 +
 +So, what we want to do is to construct a table of numbers such that when the
 +program calls
 +
 + LDX z
 + LDA table,z
 +
 +it gets the absolute (i.e. non-offset) value A=d/(z-z0).  What if we want to
 +change d?  You could put a little piece of code into your program which
 +multiplies by a number less than one, and let d represent the maximum value
 +for d which makes the code work.  But for the moment we won't bother with
 +that -- one thing at a time!
 +
 +Since z is a signed number, we ought to add 128 to it to convert it into an
 +index.  Does this have any meaning in two's-complement arithmetic?  Yup.  We
 +also need to remember that floats are offset by 64, and that the highest
 +value a signed number can have is 127.
 +
 +Here is how the table is generated:
 +
 + 10 bz=whatever
 + 20 d=45:z0=3:z=-128:dz=1
 + 30 for i=0 to 255
 + 40 q%=64*d/(64*z0-z):if q%>127 then q%=127
 + 50 poke bz+i,q%:z=z+dz
 + 60 next
 +
 +Note that the offset chosen forces q% to always be positive.  This fact can
 +be made use of in the multiplication routine (but isn't in the source code).
 +
 +You may have noticed that z0-z is used, and not z-z0 like in the projection
 +equation.  If you put on your geometric thinking cap for a moment, you will
 +realize that the way the projection equations were set up causes the image
 +to become inverted.  To uninvert it, we need to multiply by negative one. 
 +So we just add that step into the table.
 +
 +But we still need to do a multiplication!
 +
 +Fast Signed 8-bit Multiply
 +--------------------------
 +
 +A binary number looks like the following:
 +
 + P = 1*128 + 0*64 + 0*32 + 1*16 + 1*8 + 0*4 + 0*2 + 0*1
 +
 +Therefore, if we want to multiply P by another number, 13 say, we find that
 +
 + 13*P = 13*128 + 0*64 + 0*32 + 13*16 + ...
 +
 +that is to say, if there is a one in bit position N, then the new number
 +will have 13*2^N in it.  So, to multiply two numbers we find out what bit
 +positions are high, and then add the other number*2^N to the result. This
 +doesn't seem too fast.  Here is a trick: we can write 2^N as 256/2^(8-N). 
 +
 +So, let's say we want to multiply the number P by the number R.  If P has a
 +high bit in position N, we can start out with 256*R, and bit-shift it to the
 +right 8-N times.  Why in the world would we do this? Because we can
 +_pipeline_ the process in a way somewhat similar to the way a Cray
 +supercomputer multiplies two vectors together -- yes, I'm comparing your
 +C-64 to a Cray!  Watch:
 +
 +*
 +* 8-bit multiply -> 16-bit result
 +*
 +* ACC*AUX -> [AUX,EXT]  lo,hi
 +
 +MULT LDA #$00
 +    LDY #$09
 +]LOOP LSR
 + ROR ACC
 + BCC MULT2
 + CLC
 + ADC AUX
 +MULT2 DEY
 + BNE ]LOOP
 + STA EXT
 +
 +Pretty slick.  Now we need to modify it for signed numbers.  All we need to
 +do is check to see if the result is positive or negative. If it's positive,
 +we check one number (they are either both positive or both negative), and if
 +it's negative we fix them both to be positive, and use the above process. 
 +If the result is going to be negative, we need to find the negative number,
 +make it positive, multiply the two numbers together, and make the final
 +result negative (take the two's-complement of the result).
 +
 +See the source code for an implementation of this.
 +
 +Note that we could do a divide in a similar fashion, except shifting left
 +instead of right.  Since we don't need a divide routine for our calculations
 +we don't need to worry about this.
 +
 +Now we have all the tools we need to implement the mathematics. There is
 +still one part of the program left: drawing the thing!
 +
 +Drawing a line
 +--------------
 +
 +The geometric idea is: given an initial point [x1 y1], we want to draw a
 +line to the point [x2 y2]!  Now we want to do this on a computer by taking
 +one step at a time, from point to point.  The idea is to make it fast, and
 +since we're on a C64 there aren't any MUL or DIV instructions.
 +
 +To do this, we first need to find out which is larger:
 +
 + dx = |x2-x1|
 + dy = |y2-y1|
 +
 +where | | denotes absolute value.  Let's assume that it is dx, and that the
 +variable x is going to run from x1 to x2.  Therefore, we want to increase x
 +by one at each step, and we want to increase y by some fractional amount (If
 +dy were larger we would want to take big steps in the y-direction). But we
 +don't want to calculate this fractional number.  We do, however, want to
 +take a certain amount of steps in the x-direction before taking a step in
 +the y-direction.
 +
 +If we take k steps in x before taking a step in y, then we want to chose k
 +such that
 +
 + dx/k = dy
 +
 +which gives
 +
 + k = dx/dy
 +
 +where dx and dy are as above, the total number of steps to be taken in the
 +x- and y-directions respectively.  What is dx/dy?  We don't care.  Instead,
 +every time we step in x, we need to increase a counter by the amount dy. As
 +soon as this counter is larger than dx, we have successfully divided dy into
 +dx, and so simply reset the counter (in a special way, so that we keep any
 +remainder from the division) and take a step in y.
 +
 +Of course, if dy were larger than dx, the idea would be the same, but now k
 += dy/dx.  k is never smaller than one.
 +
 +In the code fragment which follows it is assumed that x2>x1,  y2>y1, and
 +dx>dy.  Obviously, then, any self-respecting line drawing routine needs to
 +handle all of these cases.  One way is to have eight different routines, one
 +for each case.  Another way (the way used by the program), is to force
 +x2>x1, so that there are only four cases to deal with.  For the plotting
 +routine which we use, this turns out to be necessary.  If you think about
 +it, you can come up with some more clever ways to deal with this.
 +
 +Note that you also need to figure out what column the first point is in:
 +this algorithm knows how to walk forwards, but it doesn't know where it
 +should start.
 +
 +The code is next to some similar BASIC7.0 code to make it easier to
 +understand.
 +
 +The code can be sped up in a lot of ways.  For one thing it could be made
 +self-modifying.  All variables could be stored in zero page. In fact, the
 +entire routine could be stored in zero page!  Also, with a little change in
 +the logic (and a subsequent change in the plotting routine) you can
 +eliminate the branching instruction.  For the sake of clarity we don't do
 +that here; maybe in another paper ;-).
 +
 +Also note that the largest value x can take on in this routine is 255.  For
 +the way we are going to plot things, this won't matter. But a more general
 +routine needs a way to overcome this.  One way would be to draw two separate
 +lines.
 +
 +10 REM All of the above comments ;-)
 +20 REM Input x1,x2,y1,y2
 +30 GRAPHIC1,1:DRAW1,x1,y1:DRAW1,x2,y2
 +31 :REM above is a double-check ;Drawin' a line
 +39 REM Set up variables ;v1.3 SLJ 7/2/94
 +40 DX = X2-X1 LDA $(X2) ;X2 in zero page
 + SBC $(X1)
 + STA DX ;For speed, store
 +50 DY = Y2-Y1 LDA $(Y2)   ;directly into code
 + SBC $(Y1)   ;below
 + STY DY
 +60 X=X1:Y=Y1 LDX $(X1) ;Plotting coordinates
 + LDY $(Y1) ;in X and Y
 +64 REM A counts steps in x
 +65 REM Below you might want to
 +66 REM change to A=1 or A=DY
 +67 REM Otherwise the line always
 +68 REM takes only one step in y
 +69 REM before the last point (x=x2-1)
 +70 A=256-DX:REM A=0 LDA #00 ;Saves us a CMP
 + SEC
 + SBC     DX
 +80 DRAW1,X,Y PPLOT ;Mystery plotter
 +90 REM Main routine                     CLC
 +100 X=X+1                          LOOP INX ;Step in x
 +110 A=A+DY         ADC DY ;Add DY
 +120 IF A>=256 THEN Y=Y+1:A=A-DX         BCC     NOPE ;Time to step in y?
 +121 REM IF A>=DX THEN... INY ;Step in y
 + SBC DX ;Reset counter
 +130 DRAW1,X,Y    NOPE PPLOT ;Plot the point
 +140 IF X<>X2 THEN GOTO 100         CPX X2 ;At the endpoint yet?
 + BNE LOOP
 +150 PRINT"All done!":REM Yay!
 +
 + Cycle count:
 +       LOOP: 2 3 2 2 3 3 3 = 18
 +     (worst case)
 +       + dx PPLOTs (one for each point)
 +
 +The point here is that it's fast.  If you use self-modifying code, you can
 +get this down to 15 cycles per point.  If you are clever, you can get it
 +down to 13 cycles per point, excluding plot, worst case. Not too bad!  We
 +won't be clever right now, but maybe you'll get to see it later...
 +
 +Note also that this could easily be used in a BASIC program; even a BASIC2.0
 +program.  (If you would like the DATA statements to do this just drop us a
 +line, er... contact us).
 +
 +Now, this routine works fine, but for drawing a line on a computer it
 +doesn't always look great.  For instance, what happens if we draw a point
 +from 1,1 to 11,3?  k=dx/dy=5, so se will take five steps in x and then a
 +step in y, then five more steps and... a step in y at the very last point! 
 +So our line doesn't look so good -- we have a little square edge at the
 +endpoint.
 +
 +One way to fix this is to trick the computer into thinking it needs to take
 +an extra step in y by letting k=dx/(dy+1), and being careful in keeping
 +track of our counter.  The big problem with this method is that it produces
 +the square end-pixels when dx and dy are nearly the same (slope ~= 1).
 +
 +A better way to fix this is to initialize the counter not to 0 (in our case,
 +256-dx), but instead to DX/2 (256-DX/2 in our case). This has the effect of
 +splitting one of the line segments between the two endpoints, and looks good
 +for all slopes.  This is what the program does.  In fact, as far as I can
 +tell, this is what BASIC7.0 does too!
 +
 +There is still a part of our routine missing, however...
 +
 +Plotting a point
 +----------------
 +
 +In the line routine presented earlier, the nebulous statement PPLOT was
 +written.  Now we come to plotting a point in all its gory detail.
 +
 +For this project, speed is the name of the game, and for speed we don't want
 +to use normal bitmapped graphics.  Instead, we want to use character
 +graphics.  The advantages of using a custom character set are:
 +
 + - Less memory
 + - Speed of plotting
 + - Double buffering
 + - Convenient organization
 +
 +The first advantage, less memory, should be clear.  A custom character set
 +takes up 2k.  A bitmap, on the other hand, takes up 8k.
 +
 +For the second advantage, it is much faster to poke a character into screen
 +memory than it is to calculate and plot all 64 bits in a character.  This
 +way, VIC does all the hard work for us.  Also, if we are clever, we can
 +exploit several aspects of our cleverness to make plotting a single point
 +much easier.
 +
 +Character graphics also give us a very simple means of double buffering: we
 +can just plot into two different character sets and tell VIC-II to move
 +between them.  No raster interrupts here!  If the two character sets were at
 +$3000 and $3800, here is how to switch between them:
 +
 + LDA VMCSB ;VMCSB=$D018
 + EOR #%00000010 ;Flip the bit
 + STA VMCSB
 +
 +True, clearing the buffer each time is a bit slow, but for our purposes it
 +will do just fine.
 +
 +The last is less obvious.  A normal hires bitmap is organized like the
 +following:
 +
 + 00  08 ...
 + 01  09
 + 02  0A
 + ... ...
 + 07  0F
 +
 +where the number represents the offset of the byte.  This is fine for some
 +things, but calculating the position of a pixel is tricky.  With a character
 +map, we can represent our data any way we want.  In particular, we can
 +organize our bitmap to look like the following:
 +
 + 00  80 ...
 + 01  81
 + 02  82
 + ... ...
 + 7D  FD
 + 7E  FE
 + 7F  FF ...
 +
 +Or, in graphic form
 +
 + @P... etc.
 + AQ
 + BR
 + CS 
 + ..
 + O< (the back-arrow)
 +
 +What we have done is, instead of putting characters side-by-side like a
 +hires bitmap does, we put them on top of each other.  The above represents a
 +16x16 character array, which is a 128x128 pixel array. Now the y-coordinate
 +is a direct index into the row we are in.  That is, base+Y = memory location
 +of point.
 +
 +This brings us to the primary disadvantage of using a character set: our
 +pictures are pretty small.  TANSSAAFL.
 +
 +Now we could just go merrily plotting into our character bitmap, but as
 +usual a little thought can yield some impressive return.  The first thing to
 +notice is that the maximum value for y is 127; the only thing that sets the
 +high bit is the x-coordinate, and then only when it crosses a column (just
 +look at the above memory map if you don't see it).
 +
 +Therefore, if we could keep track of the bit position of x, we could tell
 +when x crossed a column, and just add 128 to the base address.  Not only
 +that, but we also know to increase the high byte of the pointer by one when
 +we have crossed two columns.
 +
 +The logic is as follows:
 + - Find the bit pattern for a given x (for speed, use a table)
 + - If it is 10000000 then we have jumped a column
 + - If the column we are in doesn't have the high bit set
 +   in the low byte of the pointer to the base of the column,
 +   then set the high bit (add 128)
 + - Otherwise, set the high bit to zero (add 128), and increase
 +   the high byte of the column pointer (step into the next page).
 +
 +Here is (more or less) the code:
 +
 +In BASIC:
 + 2000 rem bp(x) contains bit position for x
 + 2010 if int(x/8) = x/8 then base=base+128
 + 2020 poke base+y, (peek(base+y) or bp(x))
 +
 +In assembly:
 + LDA BITP,X 4 ;Load the bit pattern from a table
 + BPL CONT 3  2 ;Still in the same column?
 + EOR $LO    3 ;If not, add 128 to the low byte
 + STA $LO    3
 + BMI CONT     2 ;If the high bit is set, stay in the same page
 + INC $HI       5 ;Otherwise point to the next page
 + LDA #$128       2 ;We still need the bit pattern for x!
 +   CONT ORA ($LO),Y 5
 + STA ($LO),Y 6 ;Plot the point
 + --------
 +    Cycle count: 18 26 32
 +
 +Therefore, it takes 18 cycles to plot a point, 26 cycles to jump a column,
 +and 32 cycles to jump a page.  Over 16 points, this averages 19.375 cycles.
 +
 +When combined with the earlier line drawing routine, this gives an average
 +time of 38 cycles or so (with a best time of 34 cycles); six of those cycles
 +are for PHA and PLA, since the line drawing routine uses A for other things.
 +
 +Like most of the code, you can improve on this method if you think about it
 +a little.  Most of the time is spent checking the special cases, so how can
 +you avoid them?  Maybe if we do another article, we'll show you our
 +solution(s).
 +
 +Now, this method has a few subtleties about it.  First, what happens if the
 +first point to be plotted is x=0, or x=8?  The above routine will increase
 +the base pointer right off the bat.  This case needs to be taken care of.
 +
 +Second, the above assumes that you always take a step in x.  What happens if
 +we are taking a big step in y?  Let's say that we take ten steps in y for
 +every step in x.  What will the above plotter do if x takes a step across a
 +column, and then doesn't change for a while? Look to the source code for one
 +solution to this problem.
 +
 +So that's all there is to it!
 +
 +Post Script
 +-----------
 +
 +That's all there is to it.  Well, OK, there are a few details we left out,
 +but you can figure them out on your own.  You can always look to the source
 +code to see how we overcame the same problem.  The program is set up in a
 +way that you can experiment around with the projection parameters d and z0,
 +to see what changing them does to the math.
 +
 +What's next?  In the future you will undoubtably see lots of things from
 +George and myself, both the written word and the coded byte.  Maybe we will
 +see something from you as well?
 +
 +Da Code
 +-------
 +
 +********************************
 +*..............................*
 +*.Stephen.Judd.................*
 +*.George.Taylor................*
 +*.Started:.7/11/94.............*
 +*.Finished:.7/19/94............*
 +*..............................*
 +*.Well,.if.all.goes.well.this..*
 +*.program.will.rotate.a.cube...*
 +*..............................*
 +*.This.program.is.intended.to..*
 +*.accompany.the.article.in.....*
 +*.C=Hacking,.July.94.issue.....*
 +*.For.details.on.this.program,.*
 +*.read.the.article!............*
 +*..............................*
 +*.Write.to.us!.................*
 +*..............................*
 +*.un(bee)mo....................*
 +*..............................*
 +*.vi...........................*
 +*.n(in)g.......................*
 +*.are(th.......................*
 +*.e)you(o......................*
 +*.nly).........................*
 +*..............................*
 +*.asl(rose)eep.................*
 +*..............e.e.cummings....*
 +*..............................*
 +*.P.S..This.was.written.using..*
 +*......Merlin.128...With.a.....*
 +*......little.modification.it..*
 +*......will.work.fine.with.....*
 +*......Merlin.64...If.you......*
 +*......don't.have.either.......*
 +*......well,.we.all.have.our...*
 +*......little.faults...........*
 +********************************
 +
 + ORG $1000
 +
 +*.Constants
 +
 +BUFF1 EQU $3000 ;First.character.set
 +BUFF2 EQU $3800 ;Second.character.set
 +BUFFER EQU $A3 ;Presumably.the.tape.won't.be.running
 +X1 EQU $FB ;Points.for.drawing.a.line
 +Y1 EQU $FC ;These.zero.page.addresses
 +X2 EQU $FD ;don't.conflict.with.BASIC
 +Y2 EQU $FE
 +DX EQU $F9
 +DY EQU $FA
 +TEMP1 EQU $FB ;Of.course,.could.conflict.with.x1
 +TEMP2 EQU $FC ;Temporary.variables
 +ACC EQU $FB ;These.four.variables.are.used
 +AUX EQU $FC ;by.the.multiplication.routine
 +EXT EQU $FD
 +REM EQU $FE
 +ZTEMP EQU $02 ;Used.for.buffer.swap...Don't.touch.
 +
 +ANGMAX EQU 120 ;There.are.2*pi/angmax.angles
 +OFFSET EQU 6 ;Float.offset:.x=xactual*2^offset
 +
 +*.VIC
 +
 +VMCSB EQU $D018
 +BKGND EQU $D020
 +BORDER EQU $D021
 +SSTART EQU 1344 ;row.9.in.screen.memory.at.1024
 +
 +
 +*.Kernal
 +
 +CHROUT EQU $FFD2
 +GETIN EQU $FFE4
 +
 +***.Macros
 +
 +MOVE MAC
 + LDA ]1
 + STA ]2
 + <<<
 +
 +GETKEY MAC  ;Wait.for.a.keypress
 +WAIT JSR GETIN
 + CMP #00
 + BEQ WAIT
 + <<<
 +
 +DEBUG MAC  ;Print.a.character
 +. DO.0  ;Don't.assemble
 +
 + LDA #]1
 + JSR CHROUT
 + >>> GETKEY ;And.wait.to.continue
 + CMP #'s' ;My.secrect.switch.key
 + BNE L1
 + JSR CLEANUP
 + JMP DONE
 +L1 CMP #'x' ;My.secret.abort.key
 + BNE DONE
 + JMP CLEANUP
 + FIN
 +DONE <<<
 +
 +DEBUGA MAC
 + DO.0
 + LDA ]1
 + STA 1024
 + FIN
 +DONEA <<<
 +
 +SETBUF MAC  ;Put.buffers.where.they.can.be.hurt
 + LDA #00
 + STA BUFFER
 + LDA ZTEMP ;ztemp.contains.the.high.byte.here
 + STA BUFFER+1
 + <<<
 +
 +*-------------------------------
 +
 + LDA #$00
 + STA BKGND
 + STA BORDER
 + LDA VMCSB
 + AND #%00001111 ;Screen.memory.to.1024
 + ORA #%00010000
 + STA VMCSB
 +
 + LDY #00
 + LDA #<TTEXT
 + STA TEMP1
 + LDA #>TTEXT
 + STA TEMP2
 + JMP TITLE
 +TTEXT HEX 9305111111 ;clear.screen,.white,.crsr.dn
 + TXT '...............cube3d',0d,0d
 + TXT '.................by',0d
 + HEX 9F ;cyan
 + TXT '....stephen.judd'
 + HEX 99
 + TXT '....george.taylor',0d,0d
 + HEX 9B
 + TXT '..check.out.the.july.94.issue.of',0d
 + HEX 96
 + TXT '..c=hacking'
 + HEX 9B
 + TXT '.for.more.details!',0d
 + HEX 0D1D1D9E12
 + TXT 'f1/f2',92
 + TXT '.-.inc/dec.x-rotation',0d
 + HEX 1D1D12
 + TXT 'f3/f4',92
 + TXT '.-.inc/dec.y-rotation',0d
 + HEX 1D1D12
 + TXT 'f5/f6',92
 + TXT '.-.inc/dec.z-rotation',0d
 + HEX 1D1D12
 + TXT 'f7',92
 + TXT '.resets',0d
 + TXT '..press.q.to.quit',0d
 + HEX 0D05
 + TXT '......press.any.key.to.begin',0d
 + HEX 00
 +TITLE LDA (TEMP1),Y
 + BEQ :CONT
 + JSR CHROUT
 + INY
 + BNE TITLE
 + INC TEMP2
 + JMP TITLE
 +:CONT >>> GETKEY
 +
 +****.Set.up.tables(?)
 +
 +*.Tables.are.currently.set.up.in.BASIC
 +*.and.by.the.assembler.
 +
 +TABLES
 +
 +****.Clear.screen.and.set.up."bitmap"
 +
 +SETUP LDA #147
 + JSR CHROUT
 + LDA #<SSTART
 + ADC #12 ;The.goal.is.to.center.the.graphics
 + STA TEMP1 ;Column.12
 + LDA #>SSTART ;Row.9
 + STA TEMP1+1 ;SSTART.points.to.row.9
 + LDA #00
 + LDY #00
 + LDX #00 ;x.will.count.16.rows.for.us
 + CLC
 +
 +:LOOP STA (TEMP1),Y
 + INY
 + ADC #16
 + BCC :LOOP
 + CLC
 + LDA TEMP1
 + ADC #40 ;Need.to.add.40.to.the.base.pointer
 + STA TEMP1 ;To.jump.to.the.next.row
 + LDA TEMP1+1
 + ADC #00 ;Take.care.of.carries
 + STA TEMP1+1
 + LDY #00
 + INX
 + TXA  ;X.is.also.an.index.into.the.character.number
 + CPX #16
 + BNE :LOOP ;Need.to.do.it.16.times
 +
 + >>> DEBUG,'2'
 +****.Set.up.buffers
 +
 + LDA #<BUFF1
 + STA BUFFER
 + LDA #>BUFF1
 + STA BUFFER+1
 + STA ZTEMP ;ztemp.will.make.life.simple.for.us
 + LDA VMCSB
 + AND #%11110001 ;Start.here.so.that.swap.buffers.will.work.right
 + ORA #%00001110
 + STA VMCSB
 +
 +
 +****.Set.up.initial.values
 +
 +INIT LDA #00
 + STA DSX
 + STA DSY
 + STA DSZ
 + STA SX
 + STA SY
 + STA SZ
 +
 + >>> DEBUG,'4'
 +
 +*-------------------------------
 +*.Main.loop
 +
 +****.Get.keypress
 +
 +MAIN
 +KPRESS JSR GETIN
 + CMP #133 ;F1?
 + BNE :F2
 + LDA DSX
 + CMP #ANGMAX/2 ;No.more.than.pi
 + BEQ :CONT
 + INC DSX ;otherwise.increase.x-rotation
 + JMP :CONT
 +:F2 CMP #137 ;F2?
 + BNE :F3
 + LDA DSX
 + BEQ :CONT
 + DEC DSX
 + JMP :CONT
 +:F3 CMP #134
 + BNE :F4
 + LDA DSY
 + CMP #ANGMAX/2
 + BEQ :CONT
 + INC DSY ;Increase.y-rotation
 + JMP :CONT
 +:F4 CMP #138
 + BNE :F5
 + LDA DSY
 + BEQ :CONT
 + DEC DSY
 + JMP :CONT
 +:F5 CMP #135
 + BNE :F6
 + LDA DSZ
 + CMP #ANGMAX/2
 + BEQ :CONT
 + INC DSZ ;z-rotation
 + JMP :CONT
 +:F6 CMP #139
 + BNE :F7
 + LDA DSZ
 + BEQ :CONT
 + DEC DSZ
 + JMP :CONT
 +:F7 CMP #136
 + BNE :Q
 + JMP INIT
 +:Q CMP #'q' ;q.quits
 + BNE :CONT
 + JMP CLEANUP
 +
 +:CONT
 +*.>>>.DEBUG,'5'
 +
 +****.Update.angles
 +
 +UPDATE CLC
 + LDA SX
 + ADC DSX
 + CMP #ANGMAX ;Are.we.>=.maximum.angle?
 + BCC :CONT1
 + SBC #ANGMAX :If so, reset
 +:CONT1 STA SX
 + CLC
 + LDA SY
 + ADC DSY
 + CMP #ANGMAX
 + BCC :CONT2
 + SBC #ANGMAX ;Same.deal
 +:CONT2 STA SY
 + CLC
 + LDA SZ
 + ADC DSZ
 + CMP #ANGMAX
 + BCC :CONT3
 + SBC #ANGMAX
 +:CONT3 STA SZ
 +
 +
 +****.Rotate.coordinates
 +
 +ROTATE
 +
 +***.First,.calculate.t1,t2,...,t10
 +
 +**.Two.macros.to.simplify.our.life
 +ADDA MAC  ;Add.two.angles.together
 + CLC
 + LDA ]1
 + ADC ]2
 + CMP #ANGMAX ;Is.the.sum.>.2*pi?
 + BCC DONE
 + SBC #ANGMAX ;If.so,.subtract.2*pi
 +DONE <<<
 +
 +SUBA MAC  ;Subtract.two.angles
 + SEC
 + LDA ]1
 + SBC ]2
 + BCS DONE
 + ADC #ANGMAX ;Oops,.we.need.to.add.2*pi
 +DONE <<<
 +
 +**.Now.calculate.t1,t2,etc.
 +
 + >>> SUBA,SY;SZ
 + STA T1 ;t1=sy-sz
 + >>> ADDA,SY;SZ
 + STA T2 ;t2=sy+sz
 + >>> ADDA,SX;SZ
 + STA T3 ;t3=sx+sz
 + >>> SUBA,SX;SZ
 + STA T4 ;t4=sx-sz
 + >>> ADDA,SX;T2
 + STA T5 ;t5=sx+t2
 + >>> SUBA,SX;T1
 + STA T6 ;t6=sx-t1
 + >>> ADDA,SX;T1
 + STA T7 ;t7=sx+t1
 + >>> SUBA,T2;SX
 + STA T8 ;t8=t2-sx
 + >>> SUBA,SY;SX
 + STA T9 ;t9=sy-sx
 + >>> ADDA,SX;SY
 + STA T10 ;t10=sx+sy
 +
 +*.Et.voila!
 +
 +***.Next,.calculate.A,B,C,...,I
 +
 +**.Another.useful.little.macro
 +DIV2 MAC  ;Divide.a.signed.number.by.2
 +;It.is.assumed.that.the.number
 + BPL POS ;is.in.the.accumulator
 + CLC
 + EOR #$FF ;We.need.to.un-negative.the.number
 + ADC #01 ;by.taking.it's.complement
 + LSR  ;divide.by.two
 + CLC
 + EOR #$FF
 + ADC #01 ;Make.it.negative.again
 + JMP DONEDIV
 +POS LSR  ;Number.is.positive
 +DONEDIV <<<
 +
 +MUL2 MAC  ;Multiply.a.signed.number.by.2
 + BPL POSM
 + CLC
 + EOR #$FF
 + ADC #$01
 + ASL
 + CLC
 + EOR #$FF
 + ADC #$01
 + JMP DONEMUL
 +POSM ASL
 +DONEMUL <<<
 +
 +**.Note.that.we.are.currently.making.a.minor.leap
 +**.of.faith.that.no.overflows.will.occur.
 +
 +:CALCA CLC
 + LDX T1
 + LDA COS,X
 + LDX T2
 + ADC COS,X
 + STA A11 ;A=(cos(t1)+cos(t2))/2
 +:CALCB LDX T1
 + LDA SIN,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T2
 + SBC SIN,X
 + STA B12 ;B=(sin(t1)-sin(t2))/2
 +:CALCC LDX SY
 + LDA SIN,X
 + >>> MUL2
 + STA C13 ;C=sin(sy)
 +:CALCD SEC
 + LDX T8
 + LDA COS,X
 + LDX T7
 + SBC COS,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T5
 + SBC COS,X
 + CLC
 + LDX T6
 + ADC COS,X ;Di=(cos(t8)-cos(t7)+cos(t6)-cos(t5))/2
 + >>> DIV2
 + CLC
 + LDX T3
 + ADC SIN,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T4
 + SBC SIN,X
 + STA D21 ;D=(sin(t3)-sin(t4)+Di)/2
 +:CALCE SEC
 + LDX T5
 + LDA SIN,X
 + LDX T6
 + SBC SIN,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T7
 + SBC SIN,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T8
 + SBC SIN,X ;Ei=(sin(t5)-sin(t6)-sin(t7)-sin(t8))/2
 + >>> DIV2
 + CLC
 + LDX T3
 + ADC COS,X
 + CLC
 + LDX T4
 + ADC COS,X
 + STA E22 ;E=(cos(t3)+cos(t4)+Ei)/2
 +:CALCF LDX T9
 + LDA SIN,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T10
 + SBC SIN,X
 + STA F23 ;F=(sin(t9)-sin(t10))/2
 +:CALCG LDX T6
 + LDA SIN,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T8
 + SBC SIN,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T7
 + SBC SIN,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T5
 + SBC SIN,X ;Gi=(sin(t6)-sin(t8)-sin(t7)-sin(t5))/2
 + >>> DIV2
 + CLC
 + LDX T4
 + ADC COS,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T3
 + SBC COS,X
 + STA G31 ;G=(cos(t4)-cos(t3)+Gi)/2
 + >>> DEBUGA,G31
 + >>> DEBUG,'g'
 +:CALCH CLC
 + LDX T6
 + LDA COS,X
 + LDX T7
 + ADC COS,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T5
 + SBC COS,X
 + SEC
 + LDX T8
 + SBC COS,X ;Hi=(cos(t6)+cos(t7)-cos(t5)-cos(t8))/2
 + >>> DIV2
 + CLC
 + LDX T3
 + ADC SIN,X
 + CLC
 + LDX T4
 + ADC SIN,X
 + STA H32 ;H=(sin(t3)+sin(t4)+Hi)/2
 +:WHEW CLC
 + LDX T9
 + LDA COS,X
 + LDX T10
 + ADC COS,X
 + STA I33 ;I=(cos(t9)+cos(t10))/2
 +
 +**.It's.all.downhill.from.here.
 +
 +**.Rotate,.project,.and.store.the.points
 +DOWNHILL LDA A11 ;This.is.getting.to.be.a.real.mess
 + STA TA
 + LDA B12 ;The.reason.this.is.done
 + STA TB ;is.to.make.the.code.a.little
 + LDA C13 ;easier.to.read.(and.debug!)
 + STA TC
 + LDA D21 ;These.are.all.temporary.locations
 + STA TD ;Used.by.the.projection.subroutine.
 + LDA E22
 + STA TE ;Otherwise,.there.would.be.eight
 + LDA F23 ;long.routines.here.
 + STA TF
 + LDA G31 ;But.it.would.be.significantly.faster
 + STA TG
 + LDA H32
 + STA TH
 + LDA I33
 + STA TI
 +
 +*.A.neat.macro
 +NEG MAC  ;Change.the.sign.of.a.two's.complement
 + CLC
 + LDA ]1 ;number.
 + EOR #$FF
 + ADC #$01
 + <<<
 +
 +*.P1=[1.1.1]
 + JSR PROJECT ;Unroll.this.whole.thing
 + LDX TX1 ;(sorry.about.these.two.lines)
 + LDY TY1 ;(see.PROJECT.for.reason.why)
 + STX P1X ;For.a.pretty.big.speed.increase!
 + STY P1Y
 +*.P2=[1.-1.1]
 + >>> NEG,B12 ;Change.these.elements
 + STA TB
 + >>> NEG,E22 ;Since.y.is.now.-1
 + STA TE
 + >>> NEG,H32
 + STA TH
 + JSR PROJECT
 + LDX TX1
 + LDY TY1
 + STX P2X
 + STY P2Y
 +*.P3=[-1.-1.1]
 + >>> NEG,A11
 + STA TA
 + >>> NEG,D21
 + STA TD
 + >>> NEG,G31
 + STA TG
 + JSR PROJECT
 + LDX TX1
 + LDY TY1
 + STX P3X
 + STY P3Y
 +*.P4=[-1.1.1]
 + LDA B12
 + STA TB
 + LDA E22
 + STA TE
 + LDA H32
 + STA TH
 + JSR PROJECT
 + LDX TX1
 + LDY TY1
 + STX P4X
 + STY P4Y
 +*.P8=[-1.1.-1]
 + >>> NEG,C13
 + STA TC
 + >>> NEG,F23
 + STA TF
 + >>> NEG,I33
 + STA TI
 + JSR PROJECT
 + LDX TX1
 + LDY TY1
 + STX P8X
 + STY P8Y
 +*.P7=[-1.-1.-1]
 + >>> NEG,B12
 + STA TB
 + >>> NEG,E22
 + STA TE
 + >>> NEG,H32
 + STA TH
 + JSR PROJECT
 + LDX TX1
 + LDY TY1
 + STX P7X
 + STY P7Y
 +*.P6=[1.-1.-1]
 + LDA A11
 + STA TA
 + LDA D21
 + STA TD
 + LDA G31
 + STA TG
 + JSR PROJECT
 + LDX TX1
 + LDY TY1
 + STX P6X
 + STY P6Y
 +*.P5=[1.1.-1]
 + LDA B12
 + STA TB
 + LDA E22
 + STA TE
 + LDA H32
 + STA TH
 + JSR PROJECT
 + LDX TX1
 + LDY TY1
 + STX P5X
 + STY P5Y
 +
 +****.Clear.buffer
 +
 + >>> SETBUF
 +CLRBUF LDA #$00 ;Pretty.straightforward,
 + LDX #$08 ;I.think
 + LDY #$00
 +:LOOP STA (BUFFER),Y
 + INY
 + BNE :LOOP
 + INC BUFFER+1
 + DEX
 + BNE :LOOP
 + LDA BUFFER+1
 +
 +****.Finally,.draw.the.lines.
 +
 + LDA P1X ;[1.1.1]
 + STA TX1
 + LDA P1Y
 + STA TY1
 + LDA P2X ;[1.-1.1]
 + STA TX2
 + LDA P2Y
 + STA TY2
 + JSR DRAW ;First.line
 +
 + LDA P3X ;[-1.-1.1]
 + STA TX1
 + LDA P3Y
 + STA TY1
 + JSR DRAW ;Second.line
 +
 + LDA P4X ;[-1.1.1]
 + STA TX2
 + LDA P4Y
 + STA TY2
 + JSR DRAW ;Third.line
 +
 + LDA P1X ;[1.1.1]
 + STA TX1
 + LDA P1Y
 + STA TY1
 + JSR DRAW ;Fourth.line...One.face.done.
 +
 + LDA P5X ;[1.1.-1]
 + STA TX2
 + LDA P5Y
 + STA TY2
 + JSR DRAW ;Five
 +
 + LDA P6X ;[1.-1.-1]
 + STA TX1
 + LDA P6Y
 + STA TY1
 + JSR DRAW ;Six
 +
 + LDA P2X ;[1.-1.1]
 + STA TX2
 + LDA P2Y
 + STA TY2
 + JSR DRAW ;Seven
 +
 + LDA P7X ;[-1.-1.-1]
 + STA TX2
 + LDA P7Y
 + STA TY2
 + JSR DRAW ;Eight
 +
 + LDA P3X ;[-1.-1.1]
 + STA TX1
 + LDA P3Y
 + STA TY1
 + JSR DRAW ;Nine
 +
 + LDA P8X ;[-1.1.-1]
 + STA TX1
 + LDA P8Y
 + STA TY1
 + JSR DRAW ;Ten
 +
 + LDA P4X ;[-1.1.1]
 + STA TX2
 + LDA P4Y
 + STA TY2
 + JSR DRAW ;Eleven
 +
 + LDA P5X ;[1.1.-1]
 + STA TX2
 + LDA P5Y
 + STA TY2
 + JSR DRAW ;Twelve!
 +
 +****.Swap.buffers
 +
 +SWAPBUF LDA VMCSB
 + EOR #$02 ;Pretty.tricky,.eh?
 + STA VMCSB
 + LDA #$08
 + EOR ZTEMP ;ztemp=high.byte.just.flips
 + STA ZTEMP ;between.$30.and.$38
 +
 + JMP MAIN ;Around.and.around.we.go...
 +
 +
 +*-------------------------------
 +*.This.subroutine.calculates.the.projection.of.X.and.Y
 +
 +PROJECT CLC
 + LDA TG
 + ADC TH
 + CLC
 + ADC TI ;This.is.rotated.Z
 + CLC
 + ADC #128 ;We.are.going.to.take.128+z
 + TAX  ;Now.it.is.ready.for.indexing
 + LDA ZDIV,X ;Table.of.-d/z
 + STA AUX ;This.is.for.the.projection
 + STA REM ;Multiply.can.clobber.AUX
 +
 + CLC
 + LDA TA
 + ADC TB
 + CLC
 + ADC TC
 + STA ACC ;This.is.rotated.x
 + JSR SMULT ;Signed.multiply.ACC*AUX/2^OFFSET
 + CLC
 + LDA ACC
 +:CONT1 ADC #64 ;Offset.the.coordinate
 +*.See.below.for.the.reason.why.this
 +*.next.instruction.is.commented.out
 +*.TAX..;Now.X.is.x!
 + STA TX1
 + CLC  ;Do.the.whole.thing.again.for.Y
 + LDA REM
 + STA AUX
 + LDA TD
 + ADC TE
 + CLC
 + ADC TF
 + STA ACC ;This.is.rotated.y
 + JSR SMULT ;Signed.multiply.ACC*AUX/2^OFFSET
 + CLC
 + LDA ACC
 +:CONT2 ADC #64 ;Offset.the.coordinate
 +*.For.some.completely.unknown.reason.to.me
 +*.the.instruction.below.doesn't.work...Somehow
 +*.the.RTS.is.modifying.X.and.Y???
 +*.TAY..;Store.in.Y
 + STA TY1
 + RTS  ;I.hope.to.heck.this.works.
 +
 +*-------------------------------
 +*.SMULT:.8-bit.signed.(sort-of).multiply
 +*
 +*.ACC*AUX/2^OFFSET.->.[ACC,.EXT]..16-bit.result..lo,hi
 +*
 +*.Note.that.this.routine.divides.the.end.result.by.2^OFFSET
 +
 +*.Yup,.another.macro.
 +DIVOFF MAC  ;Divide.by.the.float.offset
 + LUP OFFSET ;Repeat.offset.times
 + LSR  ;A.contains.high.byte
 + ROR ACC ;ACC.is.low.byte
 + --^
 + <<<
 +
 +
 +SMULT CLC
 + LDA ACC ;First,.is.the.result.positive.or.negative?
 + EOR AUX
 + BMI :NEG
 +
 + LDA ACC ;They.are.either.both.negative.or
 + BPL :CONT1 ;both.positive
 + EOR #$FF ;In.this.case,.make.them
 + ADC #$01 ;both.positive!
 + STA ACC
 + >>> NEG,AUX ;Little.macro.used.earlier.
 +:CONT1 LDA #00 ;Multiply.the.two.numbers
 + LDY #$09
 +]LOOP LSR  ;Read.the.article.for.details.
 + ROR ACC
 + BCC :MULT1 ;Or.figure.it.out.yourself!
 + CLC
 + ADC AUX
 +:MULT1 DEY
 + BNE ]LOOP
 + >>> DIVOFF ;Remove.this.line.for.a.general.multiply
 + STA EXT
 + RTS
 +
 +:NEG LDA ACC ;One.of.the.two.is.negative
 + BMI :CONT2
 + >>> NEG,AUX ;Otherwise.it's.AUX
 + JMP :CONT3
 +:CONT2 EOR #$FF ;Take.two's.complement
 + ADC #$01
 + STA ACC
 +:CONT3 LDA #00 ;Multiply
 + LDY #$09
 +]LOOP2 LSR
 + ROR ACC
 + BCC :MULT2
 + CLC
 + ADC AUX
 +:MULT2 DEY
 + BNE ]LOOP2
 + >>> DIVOFF ;Again,.divide.by.the.offset
 + STA EXT
 + LDA ACC
 + BPL :OK ;Something.is.really.wrong.if.this.is.negative.
 + JSR CHOKE
 +:OK EOR #$FF ;Otherise,.everything.relevant.should
 + ADC #$01 ;be.completely.in.the.low.byte.
 + STA ACC
 + RTS  ;I.hope...
 +
 +*-------------------------------
 +*.General.questionable-value.error.procedure
 +
 +CHOKE LDX #00
 +:LOOP LDA :CTEXT,X
 + BEQ :DONE
 + JSR CHROUT
 + INX
 + JMP :LOOP
 +:DONE RTS
 +:CTEXT HEX 0D ;CR
 + TXT 'something.choked.:('
 + HEX 0D00
 +
 +*-------------------------------
 +*.Drawin'.a.line...A.fahn.lahn.
 +
 +***.Some.useful.macros
 +
 +PLOTPX MAC  ;plot.a.point.in.x
 + PHA  ;Use.this.one.every.time
 + LDA BITP,X ;X.is.increased
 + BPL C1
 + EOR BUFFER
 + STA BUFFER
 + BMI C2
 + INC BUFFER+1
 +C2 LDA #%10000000
 +C1 ORA (BUFFER),Y
 + STA (BUFFER),Y
 + PLA  ;Need.to.save.A!
 + <<<
 +
 +PLOTPY MAC  ;Plot.a.point.in.y:.simpler.and.necessary!
 + PHA  ;Use.this.one.when.you.just.increase.Y
 + LDA BITP,X ;but.X.doesn't.change
 + ORA (BUFFER),Y
 + STA (BUFFER),Y
 + PLA
 + <<<
 +
 +CINIT MAC  ;Macro.to.initialize.the.counter
 + LDA ]1 ;dx.or.dy
 + LSR
 + EOR #$FF ;(Not.really.two's.complement)
 + ADC #$01 ;A.=.256-dx/2.or.256-dy/2
 + <<<  ;The.dx/2.makes.a.nicer.looking.line
 +
 +XSTEP MAC  ;Macro.to.take.a.step.in.X
 +XLOOP INX
 + ADC DY
 + BCC L1
 +*.Do.we.use.INY.or.DEY.here?
 + IF I,]1 ;If.the.first.character.is.an.'I'
 + INY
 + ELSE
 + DEY
 + FIN
 + SBC DX
 +L1 >>> PLOTPX ;Always.take.a.step.in.X
 + CPX X2
 + BNE XLOOP
 + <<<
 +
 +YSTEP MAC  ;Same.thing,.but.for.Y
 +YLOOP IF I,]1
 + INY
 + ELSE
 + DEY
 + CLC  ;Very.important!
 + FIN
 + ADC DX
 + BCC L2
 + INX  ;Always.increase.X
 + SBC DY
 + >>> PLOTPX
 + JMP L3
 +L2 >>> PLOTPY ;We.only.increased.Y
 +L3 CPY Y2
 + BNE YLOOP
 + <<<
 +
 +****.Initial.line.setup
 +
 +DRAW >>> MOVE,TX1;X1  ;Move.stuff.into.zero.page
 + >>> MOVE,TX2;X2  ;Where.it.can.be.modified
 + >>> MOVE,TY1;Y1
 + >>> MOVE,TY2;Y2
 + >>> SETBUF ;Now.we.can.clobber.the.buffer
 +
 + SEC  ;Make.sure.x1<x2
 + LDA X2
 + SBC X1
 + BCS :CONT
 + LDA Y2 ;If.not,.swap.P1.and.P2
 + LDY Y1
 + STA Y1
 + STY Y2
 + LDA X1
 + LDY X2
 + STY X1
 + STA X2
 +
 + SBC X1 ;Now.A=dx
 +:CONT STA DX
 + LDX X1 ;Put.x1.into.X,.now.we.can.trash.X1
 +
 +COLUMN LDA X1 ;Find.the.first.column.for.X
 + LSR  ;(This.can.be.made.much.faster!)
 + LSR  ;There.are.x1/8.128.byte.blocks
 + LSR  ;Which.means.x1/16.256.byte.blocks
 + LSR
 + BCC :EVEN ;With.a.possible.extra.128.byte.block
 + LDY #$80 ;if.so,.set.the.high.bit
 + STY BUFFER
 + CLC
 +:EVEN ADC BUFFER+1 ;Add.in.the.number.of.256.byte.blocks
 + STA BUFFER+1 ;And.store.it!
 +
 + SEC
 + LDA Y2 ;Calculate.dy
 + SBC Y1
 + BCS :CONT2 ;Is.y2>y1?
 + LDA Y1 ;Otherwise.dy=y1-y2
 + SBC Y2
 +:CONT2 STA DY
 + CMP DX ;Who's.bigger:.dy.or.dx?
 + BCS STEPINY ;If.dy,.we.need.to.take.big.steps.in.y
 +
 +STEPINX LDY Y1 ;X.is.already.set.to.x1
 + LDA BITP,X ;Plot.the.first.point
 + ORA (BUFFER),Y
 + STA (BUFFER),Y
 + >>> CINIT,DX ;Initialize.the.counter
 + CPY Y2
 + BCS XDECY ;Do.we.step.forwards.or.backwards.in.Y?
 +
 +XINCY >>> XSTEP,INY
 + RTS
 +
 +XDECY >>> XSTEP,DEY
 + RTS
 +
 +STEPINY LDY Y1 ;Well,.a.little.repetition.never.hurt.anyone
 + LDA BITP,X
 + ORA (BUFFER),Y
 + STA (BUFFER),Y
 + >>> CINIT,DY
 + CPY Y2
 + BCS YDECY
 +
 +YINCY >>> YSTEP,INY
 + RTS
 +
 +YDECY >>> YSTEP,DEY
 + RTS
 +
 +
 +*-------------------------------
 +*.Clean.up
 +
 +CLEANUP LDA VMCSB ;Switch.char.rom.back.in
 + AND #%11110101 ;default
 + STA VMCSB
 +
 + RTS  ;bye!
 +
 +*-------------------------------
 +*.Some.variables
 +
 +TX1 DS 1
 +TY1 DS 1
 +TX2 DS 1
 +TY2 DS 1
 +P1X DS 1 ;These.are.temporary.storage
 +P1Y DS 1 ;Used.in.plotting.the.projection
 +P2X DS 1
 +P2Y DS 1 ;They.are.here.so.that.we
 +P3X DS 1 ;don't.have.to.recalculate.them.
 +P3Y DS 1
 +P4X DS 1 ;They.make.life.easy.
 +P4Y DS 1
 +P5X DS 1 ;Why.are.you.looking.at.me.like.that?
 +P5Y DS 1 ;Don't.you.trust.me?
 +P6X DS 1
 +P6Y DS 1 ;Having.another.child.wasn't.my.idea.
 +P7X DS 1
 +P7Y DS 1
 +P8X DS 1
 +P8Y DS 1
 +DSX DS 1 ;DSX.is.the.increment.for.rotating.around.x
 +DSY DS 1 ;Similar.for.DSY,.DSZ
 +DSZ DS 1
 +SX DS 1 ;These.are.the.actual.angles.in.x.y.and.z
 +SY DS 1
 +SZ DS 1
 +T1 DS 1 ;These.are.used.in.the.rotation
 +T2 DS 1
 +T3 DS 1 ;See.the.article.for.more.details
 +T4 DS 1
 +T5 DS 1
 +T6 DS 1
 +T7 DS 1
 +T8 DS 1
 +T9 DS 1
 +T10 DS 1
 +A11 DS 1 ;These.are.the.elements.of.the.rotation.matrix
 +B12 DS 1 ;XYZ
 +C13 DS 1
 +D21 DS 1 ;The.number.denotes.(row,column)
 +E22 DS 1
 +F23 DS 1
 +G31 DS 1
 +H32 DS 1
 +I33 DS 1
 +TA DS 1 ;These.are.temporary.locations
 +TB DS 1 ;for.use.by.the.projection.routine
 +TC DS 1
 +TD DS 1
 +TE DS 1
 +TF DS 1
 +TG DS 1
 +TH DS 1
 +TI DS 1
 +
 +*-------------------------------
 +*.Set.up.bit.table
 +
 + DS ^ ;Clear.to.end.of.page
 +   ;So.that.tables.start.on.a.page.boundary
 +BITP LUP 16 ;128.Entries.for.X
 + DFB %10000000
 + DFB %01000000
 + DFB %00100000
 + DFB %00010000
 + DFB %00001000
 + DFB %00000100
 + DFB %00000010
 + DFB %00000001
 + --^
 +SIN   ;Table.of.sines,.120.bytes
 +COS EQU SIN+128 ;Table.of.cosines
 +   ;Both.of.these.trig.tables.are
 +   ;currently.set.up.from.BASIC
 +ZDIV EQU COS+128 ;Division.table
 +
 +UUencoded Binaries
 +------------------
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 + 
 +end
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 + 
 +end
 +
 +begin 666 listme3d
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 +#&AH:
 + 
 +end
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 +M                                                            
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 +M(! (! (!@$ @$ @$ @& 0" 0" 0" 8! (! (! (!@$ @$ @$ @& 0" 0" 0"
 +M 8! (! (! (!@$ @$ @$ @& 0" 0" 0" 8! (! (! (!@$ @$ @$ @& 0" 0
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 +M                                                            
 +H                                                        
 + 
 +end
 +
 +begin 666 cube3d.s
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 +M9&$@>3(@.V-!3$-53$%41:!$60T@<V)C('DQ#2!B8W,@.F-O;G0R(#MI4Z!9
 +M,CY9,3\-(&QD82!Y,2 [;U1(15)725-%H$19/5DQ+5DR#2!S8F,@>3(-.F-O
 +M;G0R('-T82!D>0T@8VUP(&1X(#MW2$\G4Z!"24='15(ZH$19H$]2H$18/PT@
 +M8F-S('-T97!I;GD@.VE&H$19+*!71:!.145$H%1/H%1!2T6@0DE'H%-415!3
 +MH$E.H%D-#7-T97!I;G@@;&1Y('DQ(#MXH$E3H$%,4D5!1%F@4T54H%1/H%@Q
 +M#2!L9&$@8FET<"QX(#MP3$]4H%1(1:!&25)35*!03TE.5 T@;W)A("AB=69F
 +M97(I+'D-('-T82 H8G5F9F5R*2QY#2 ^/CX@8VEN:70L9'@@.VE.251)04Q)
 +M6D6@5$A%H$-/54Y415(-(&-P>2!Y,@T@8F-S('AD96-Y(#MD3Z!71:!35$50
 +MH$9/4E=!4D13H$]2H$)!0TM705)$4Z!)3J!Y/PT->&EN8WD@/CX^('AS=&5P
 +M+&EN>0T@<G1S#0UX9&5C>2 ^/CX@>'-T97 L9&5Y#2!R=',-#7-T97!I;GD@
 +M;&1Y('DQ(#MW14Q,+*!!H$Q)5%1,1:!215!%5$E424].H$Y%5D52H$A54E2@
 +M04Y93TY%#2!L9&$@8FET<"QX#2!O<F$@*&)U9F9E<BDL>0T@<W1A("AB=69F
 +M97(I+'D-(#X^/B!C:6YI="QD>0T@8W!Y('DR#2!B8W,@>61E8WD-#7EI;F-Y
 +M(#X^/B!Y<W1E<"QI;GD-(')T<PT->61E8WD@/CX^('ES=&5P+&1E>0T@<G1S
 +M#0T-*BTM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2T-*J!C3$5!3J!5
 +M4 T-8VQE86YU<"!L9&$@=FUC<V(@.W-7251#2*!#2$%2H%)/3:!"04-+H$E.
 +M#2!A;F0@(R4Q,3$Q,#$P,2 [1$5&055,5 T@<W1A('9M8W-B#0T@<G1S(" [
 +M0EE%(0T-*BTM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2T-*J!S3TU%
 +MH%9!4DE!0DQ%4PT-='@Q(&1S(#$-='DQ(&1S(#$-='@R(&1S(#$-='DR(&1S
 +M(#$-<#%X(&1S(#$@.W1(15-%H$%21:!414U03U)!4EF@4U1/4D%'10UP,7D@
 +M9',@,2 [=5-%1*!)3J!03$]45$E.1Z!42$6@4%)/2D5#5$E/3@UP,G@@9',@
 +M,0UP,GD@9',@,2 [=$A%6:!!4D6@2$521:!33Z!42$%4H%=%#7 S>"!D<R Q
 +M(#M$3TXG5*!(059%H%1/H%)%0T%,0U5,051%H%1(14TN#7 S>2!D<R Q#7 T
 +M>"!D<R Q(#MT2$59H$U!2T6@3$E&1:!%05-9+@UP-'D@9',@,0UP-7@@9',@
 +M,2 [=TA9H$%21:!93U6@3$]/2TE.1Z!!5*!-1:!,24M%H%1(050_#7 U>2!D
 +M<R Q(#MD3TXG5*!93U6@5%)54U2@344_#7 V>"!D<R Q#7 V>2!D<R Q(#MH
 +M059)3D>@04Y/5$A%4J!#2$E,1*!705-.)U2@35F@241%02X-<#=X(&1S(#$-
 +M<#=Y(&1S(#$-<#AX(&1S(#$-<#AY(&1S(#$-9'-X(&1S(#$@.V1S>*!)4Z!4
 +M2$6@24Y#4D5-14Y4H$9/4J!23U1!5$E.1Z!!4D]53D2@6 UD<WD@9',@,2 [
 +M<TE-24Q!4J!&3U*@9'-Y+*!D<WH-9'-Z(&1S(#$-<W@@9',@,2 [=$A%4T6@
 +M05)%H%1(1:!!0U1504R@04Y'3$53H$E.H%B@6:!!3D2@6@US>2!D<R Q#7-Z
 +M(&1S(#$-=#$@9',@,2 [=$A%4T6@05)%H%53142@24Z@5$A%H%)/5$%424].
 +M#70R(&1S(#$-=#,@9',@,2 [<T5%H%1(1:!!4E1)0TQ%H$9/4J!-3U)%H$1%
 +M5$%)3%,-=#0@9',@,0UT-2!D<R Q#70V(&1S(#$-=#<@9',@,0UT."!D<R Q
 +M#70Y(&1S(#$-=#$P(&1S(#$-83$Q(&1S(#$@.W1(15-%H$%21:!42$6@14Q%
 +M345.5%.@3T:@5$A%H%)/5$%424].H$U!5%))6 UB,3(@9',@,2 [>'EZ#6,Q
 +M,R!D<R Q#60R,2!D<R Q(#MT2$6@3E5-0D52H$1%3D]415.@*%)/5RQ#3TQ5
 +M34XI#64R,B!D<R Q#68R,R!D<R Q#6<S,2!D<R Q#6@S,B!D<R Q#6DS,R!D
 +M<R Q#71A(&1S(#$@.W1(15-%H$%21:!414U03U)!4EF@3$]#051)3TY3#71B
 +M(&1S(#$@.T9/4J!54T6@0EF@5$A%H%!23TI%0U1)3TZ@4D]55$E.10UT8R!D
 +M<R Q#71D(&1S(#$-=&4@9',@,0UT9B!D<R Q#71G(&1S(#$-=&@@9',@,0UT
 +M:2!D<R Q#0TJ+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+0TJH'-%
 +M5*!54*!"252@5$%"3$4-#2!D<R!>(#MC3$5!4J!43Z!%3D2@3T:@4$%'10T@
 +M(" [<T^@5$A!5*!404),15.@4U1!4E2@3TZ@0:!004=%H$)/54Y$05)9#6)I
 +M=' @;'5P(#$V(#LQ,CB@94Y44DE%4Z!&3U*@> T@9&9B("4Q,# P,# P, T@
 +M9&9B("4P,3 P,# P, T@9&9B("4P,#$P,# P, T@9&9B("4P,# Q,# P, T@
 +M9&9B("4P,# P,3 P, T@9&9B("4P,# P,#$P, T@9&9B("4P,# P,# Q, T@
 +M9&9B("4P,# P,# P,0T@+2U>#7-I;B @(#MT04),1:!/1J!324Y%4RR@,3(P
 +MH$)95$53#6-O<R!E<74@<VEN*S$R." [=$%"3$6@3T:@0T]324Y%4PT@(" [
 +M8D]42*!/1J!42$531:!44DE'H%1!0DQ%4Z!!4D4-(" @.T-54E)%3E1,6:!3
 +M152@55"@1E)/3:!B87-I8PUZ9&EV(&5Q=2!C;W,K,3(X(#MD259)4TE/3J!4
 +M04),10T                                                     
 +#    
 + 
 +end
 +
 +=============================================================================
 +</code>
 +====== DESIGN OF A 'REAL' OPERATING SYSTEM FOR THE 128: PART I ======
 +<code>
 +by Craig Bruce  <csbruce@ccnga.uwaterloo.ca>
 +
 +0. PREFACE
 +
 +I originally planned to write this entire article all in one go, but its
 +size, complexity, and scope of required design decisions have forced me to
 +split this article into two pieces.  (Not to mention my own poor time
 +management in writing this article).  This part gives an introduction to what
 +I am talking about and discusses, at an abstract level, how the system will
 +work.  The next part will dive into all of the nuts and bolts of the
 +low-level design.
 +
 +Also, this article may be a bit to weird for some people to grasp.  Please
 +bear with me.  This article is as much a scratchpad for my rough ideas about
 +the kind of system I want to build as it is an explanatory article.  You may
 +need a Master's degree in software systems to understand some of the things I
 +talk about.  This article makes references to the ACE operating system, which
 +is available via anonymous FTP from "ccnga.uwaterloo.ca" ACE is a
 +uni-tasking OS that has a Unix-like flavor.  (Yeah, yeah, yeah, I'm still
 +working on the next release...).
 +
 +One more note about the article: it is written in the present tense ("is")
 +rather than the future tense ("will"), since the present tense is easier to
 +read and understand.  The system, however, does not presently exist and the
 +design may change in many ways if the system ever is made to exist.
 +
 +1. INTRODUCTION
 +
 +The full title of this article should be "Design of a Multitasking Distributed
 +Microkernel Operating System for the Good Old '128" For purposes of
 +discussion, we will call the new operating system "BOS" A "multitasking"
 +operating system (OS) is one that is able to execute more than one "process"
 +"concurrently" A Process is an instance of a running program.
 +"Concurrently" means that the programs appear to be running at the same time,
 +although in reality they are not, because there is only "one" processor in the
 +128 and it can only do one thing at a time.
 +
 +A "distributed" OS is one that runs on a collection of independent computers
 +that are connected by a network.  Unlike a "network" OS, a distributed OS
 +makes all of the independent computers look like ONE big computer.  In
 +general, a distributed system, as compared to a centralized one (like MS-DOS
 +or Unix), gives you "a higher performance/price ratio ('more bang for the
 +buck'), potentially increased reliability and availability because of partial
 +failure modes (if protocols are implemented correctly), shared resources,
 +incremental growth and online extensibility, and [a closer modelling of] the
 +fact that some applications are inherently distributed."  This is quoted from
 +my Ph.D. thesis about distributed systems of powerful workstations.  To us, a
 +distributed system means increased modularity and ease of construction,
 +sharing devices like disk drives and resources like memory between multiple
 +computers, and the true parallelism of running different processes on
 +multiple computers at the same time.  Not to mention "coolness".
 +
 +A "microkernel" OS is one that has the smallest kernel possible by pushing
 +higher-level functionality (such as the file system) into the domain of user
 +processes.  The kernel ends up being small, fast, and easy to construct
 +(relative to a monolithic kernel).
 +
 +So why would we want our OS to have the features of Multitasking,
 +Distributed, and Microkernel?  Because I'm designing it, and that's what
 +interests me.  The ease-of-construction thing is important too.  Another
 +important question is "can it be done?" The answer is "yes."  And it will
 +be done, whenever I get around to it (one of these lifetimes).
 +
 +2. GENERAL DESIGN OVERVIEW
 +
 +There are a number of high-level design decisions that must be made before
 +going into a detailed design.  This section discusses these decisions.
 +
 +2.1. SPECIAL C-128 FEATURES
 +
 +The C-128 has a minumum set of special features that make it feasible to run
 +a multitasking operating system, as opposed to earlier machines like the
 +C-64.  The simplest special feature that the C128 has is *enough memory*.  The
 +64K of the C64 just isn't enough.  The 128K of the C128 is just barely
 +enough. Expanded internal memory makes the proposition even easier.
 +
 +The C-128 also has relocatable zero-page and stack-page pointers.  This
 +feature are absolutely essential and you could not make an effective
 +multitasking OS for any 6502 machine without it.  I wonder if Commodore
 +thought about this prospect when designing the MMU chip...
 +
 +The last C-128 feature is *speed*.  The C128 has a 2 MHz clock speed when
 +used with the 80-column VDC display.  This is enough speed, when harnessed
 +properly, to make your applications zip along.  For an example of speed that
 +is not harnessed properly, see Microsloth Windoze.  The VDC display is also
 +very nice, too.  Only the VDC display should be supported by a "real" OS, not
 +the VIC display.
 +
 +2.2. NETWORK
 +
 +The OS should be designed to run on a system of between 1 and N C-128's,
 +where N has a maximum of something like 8 or 16.  We'll choose 16 for our
 +software design.  The theory is that the style of operating system that we
 +are proposing makes the step between 1 and N C-128's a (relatively) easy one,
 +so why not go for it.  Also, if N were to become some number like 256 or
 +65536, then we could start kicking some serious ass performance-wise, for
 +certain classes of computations.  Also, I happen to own two C-128's and I
 +have already constructed a parallel-port network (a Jedi's weapon!), so I
 +might as well use it.
 +
 +The required network connects the user ports of C-128's into a bus.  I'm not
 +completely sure how to connect more than two C-128's to this bus (I'd
 +probably need some diodes or logic gates), so the initial version of this
 +network hardware will have a maximum of two hosts.  We will still be careful
 +to make the software of the system easily reconfigurable for any number of
 +hosts.
 +
 +You will need two appropriate connectors and some 14-conductor ribbon cable
 +to build the network.  One of my connectors is a 44-conductor connector of
 +the type used with the VIC-20 expansion port that I sawed in half and the
 +cable is some old junk ribbon cable that was lying around that I removed some
 +of the conductors from.  Any old junk will do.  You're probably best off if
 +your cable is less than six feet long (2 metres).  The network is wired up as
 +follows:
 +
 +C128-A  name/pin                                      pin/name  C128-B
 +         GND <A>+------------------------------------+<A> GND
 +        FLAG <B>+------------------------------------+<8> PC2 ***
 +         PB0 <C>+------------------------------------+<C> PB0
 +         PB1 <D>+------------------------------------+<D> PB1
 +         PB2 <E>+------------------------------------+<E> PB2
 +         PB3 <F>+------------------------------------+<F> PB3
 +         PB4 <H>+------------------------------------+<H> PB4
 +         PB5 <J>+------------------------------------+<J> PB5
 +         PB6 <K>+------------------------------------+<K> PB6
 +         PB7 <L>+------------------------------------+<L> PB7
 +         PA2 <M>+------------------------------------+<M> PA2
 +         GND <N>+------------------------------------+<N> GND
 +        CNT2 <6>+------------------------------------+<6> CNT2
 +         SP2 <7>+------------------------------------+<7> SP2
 +         PC2 <8>+------------------------------------+<B> FLAG ***
 +
 +Here is the Commodore 128 User Port when looking at the back of the unit:
 +
 +                        111
 +               123456789012    top
 +               ------------
 +               ABCDEFHJKLMN    bottom
 +
 +This gives a parallel bus that can operate at a peak of about 80
 +kiloBYTES/sec with a shift-register serial bus thrown in that can operate at
 +a peak of about 21 kiloBYTES/sec.  Both communication channels are
 +uni-directional, so some media-access-control protocol will need to be
 +provided by software.  The price, in terms of hardware for using this
 +network, is that you can't use a modem that plugs into the user port at the
 +same time.  Of course, any serious user will have a modem that plugs into a
 +UART card anyway.
 +
 +You can also write your own applications for this network, since programming
 +it is quite easy; the hardware takes care of all of the handshaking.  To
 +blast 256 bytes over the network from C128-A to C128-B, you would:
 +
 +C128-A: sender                             C128-B: receiver
 +==============                             ================
 +  lda #$FF   ;ddr-output                     lda #$00   ;ddr-input
 +  sta $DD03                                  sta $DD03
 +  ldy #0                                     ldy #0
 +- lda DATA,y ;get data                     - lda #$10   ;wait for data
 +  sta $DD01  ;send data                    - bit $DD0D
 +  lda #$10   ;wait for ack                   beq -
 +- bit $DD0D                                  lda $DD01  ;receive data/send ack
 +  beq -                                      sta DATA,y ;store data
 +  iny        ;next                           iny
 +  bne --                                     bne --
 +  rts                                        rts
 +
 +These routines can even be tweaked a little more for higher performance.
 +Programming the shift register is analogous to the above.
 +
 +There is probably no need to do error checking on the data transmitted over
 +the network since the cable should be about as reliable as any of the other
 +cables hanging out the back of your computer (and none of them have error
 +checking (except maybe your modem cable)).
 +
 +2.3. PROCESSES
 +
 +A process is a user program that is in an active state of execution.  In
 +uni-tasking operating systems like ACE or the Commodore Kernal, there is only
 +one process in the entire system.  In a multi-tasking system, there are, duh,
 +multiple processes.  Each process executes as an independently running
 +program, in isolation, logically as if it were the only process in the
 +system.  Or, as if there were N 8502's available inside of the 128 and one of
 +them were used to run each program you have loaded.
 +
 +In reality, there is only 1 CPU in the 128 (well, that we are interested in
 +using), so its time is divided up and given out in small chunks to execute so
 +many instructions of each program before moving onto the next one.  The act
 +of changing from executing one program to executing another is called
 +"context switching", and is a bit of a sticky business because there is only
 +one set of processor registers, so these must be saved and restored every
 +time we switch between processes.  Effectively, a process' complete "state"
 +must be restored and saved every time it is activated and deactivated
 +(respectively).  Since the 8502 has precious few internal registers, context
 +switching can be done quite efficiently (unlike with some RISC processors). 
 +The maximum period of time between context switches is called the "quantum"
 +time.  In our system, the quantum is 1/60 of a second.  It is more than just
 +a coincidence that this period is the same as the keyboard-scanning period. 
 +Depending on priorities and ready processes, a new or the same old process
 +may be selected for execution after the context switch of the 60-Hz
 +interrupt.
 +
 +Splitting the time of one processor among N processes may sound like we're
 +simply making each one run N times slower, which may be unbearably slow, but
 +that is not generally the case.  One thing that a CPU spends a lot of its
 +time doing is *waiting*.  Executing instructions of a program requires the
 +full attention of the CPU, but waiting requires absolutely no CPU attention. 
 +As an example, your speedy computer spends a lot of its time waiting for its
 +slow-as-molasses-launching-into-orbit user to type a key.  If we were to put
 +the process that asks the OS for a keystroke into a state of suspended
 +animation, then the CPU time that process would have consumed in a
 +busy-waiting loop can be better spent on executing the other processes that
 +are "ready" to execute.  In practice, many processes spend a lot of their
 +time waiting, so "multi-programming" is a big win.
 +
 +There are a number of things other than keystrokes that processes may wait
 +for in our envisioned system: modem characters, disk drive operations (if
 +they are custom-programmed correctly), mouse & joystick movements, real-time
 +delays, and interactions with other processes.  The OS provides facilities
 +for processes to communicate with one another when they cannot perform some
 +operation in isolation (i.e., when they become lonely).
 +
 +A process has the following things: a program loaded into the internal memory
 +of the 128, its own zero page and processor stack page, and the global
 +variables of its program.  A process can also own "far" memory (below) and
 +various other resources of servers throughout the distributed system.  The
 +process is the unit of ownership, as well as execution.  Processes also have
 +priorities that determine how much execution time they are to be given
 +relative to other processes in the system.
 +
 +Processes are allocated memory at the time of startup at a random location on
 +some random bank of internal memory on the 128.  The biggest challenge here
 +is to relocate the user program to execute at the chosen address.  The kernel
 +interface is available to programs on all internal banks of memory.
 +
 +2.4. APPLICATION PROGRAM INTERFACE
 +
 +To take advantage of existing software, we would like our OS to provide an
 +application-program interface (API) that is identical to that of the
 +ACE-128/64 operating system.  In fact, this is the *real* reason why ACE was
 +developed -- as a stepping stone toward a real operating system.  The ACE
 +Programmer's Reference Guide, which describes the API, is available from
 +"ccnga.uwaterloo.ca".
 +
 +Some useful software already exists for ACE, and ACE has a well-definied
 +interface and well-behaved programs.  The ACE interface may need to evolve a
 +little too.  The ultimate goal would be to have the same API for both systems
 +so you could run software with the more functional BOS if you have a C128 and
 +80-column monitor, or you could use the less functional ACE if you didn't
 +have all this hardware.
 +
 +The software wouldn't be "binary-identical" since the operating systems
 +provide quite different program environments and requirements, but the two
 +systems should be application-source-code compatible.
 +
 +Because of the vast differences between a microkernel and a monolithic
 +kernel, all of the ACE system calls would be redirected to user-library calls
 +in BOS. This user library would then carry out the operations accessing
 +whatever system services are needed.
 +
 +2.5. MEMORY MANAGEMENT
 +
 +The memory management of BOS is analogous to that of ACE.  There are two
 +different classes of memory: near and far.  Near memory is on the same bank
 +as a program and can be accessed directly by processor instructions.  Far
 +memory can only be accessed through the kernel by the special kernel calls
 +Fetch and Stash and must be specially allocated to a process by the operating
 +system. Note that near memory is considered a sub-class of far memory; the
 +far-memory primitives can be used to access near memory.
 +
 +Only the basic memory-accessing code is provided by the kernel; higher-level
 +memory management, such as dynamic memory allocation and deallocation, is
 +handled by the Memory Server (below).
 +
 +Unlike ACE, BOS provides the fundamental concept of "distributed memory"
 +The Fetch and Stash primitives can also access the memory of a remote machine
 +in a completely user-transparent way.  Thus, a far-memory pointer can be
 +passed between processes on different machines, and the memory that the
 +pointer refers to can be read and written with equal programming by both
 +processes. This feature can be dangerous without a synchronization mechanism,
 +so this memory sharing is intended to be used only with the communication
 +mechanism.
 +
 +There should not be an unacceptable overhead in accessing remote memory on
 +the 128 (like how there would be with bigger computers) because far-memory
 +fetching for local memory is quite expensive anyways (relative to near
 +memory), so an application will optimize its far memory accessing, and the
 +necessary interrupt handling on the remote machine can be done with very
 +little latency because of the "responsiveness" of the 6502 processor design.
 +
 +2.6. COMMUNICATION
 +
 +In the type of system that is envisioned, processes are not strictly
 +independent and competitive; many must cooperate and comunicate to get work
 +done.  To facilitiate this interprocess communication (IPC), a particular
 +organization is chosen: the Remote Procedure Call (RPC) paradigm.  RPC is a
 +message-passing scheme that is used with the heavily hyped Client/Server
 +system architecture model.  It reflects the implicit operations that take
 +place when you call a local procedure (a subroutine): the call, the entry,
 +the processing, and the return.  The kernel provides three primitives for
 +RPC:
 +
 +Send( processId, requestBuffer, reqLength, replyBuffer, maxRepLength ) : err;
 +
 +Receive( ) : processId, requestBuffer, reqLength, replyBuffer, maxRepLength;
 +
 +Reply( processId ) : err;
 +
 +Send() is used to transmit a message to a remote process and get back a reply
 +message.  The sending process suspends its execution while it is waiting for
 +remote process to execute its request.  A message consists of an arbitrary
 +sequence of bytes whose meaning is completely defined by the user.  The
 +message contents are stored in a buffer (hunk of memory) before sending, and
 +a length is specified at the time of sending.  A buffer to receive the reply
 +message must also be allocated by the sender and specified at the time of
 +sending.  To save us from the overhead of copying message contents to and fro
 +unnecessarily, only pointers to the buffers are passed around and the far
 +memory primitives are used to access message contents.  This also works
 +across machine boundaries because of the distributed-memory mechanism
 +described above.
 +
 +Receive() is used to receive a message transmitted by a remote process to the
 +current process.  The receiver blocks until another process does a
 +corresponding Send() operation, and then the request and reply buffer
 +pointers and lengths are returned.  The receiver is expected to fetch the
 +contents of the request message, process the request, prepare the reply
 +message in the far-memory reply buffer, and then execute the Reply()
 +primitive.  There are no restrictions on what the receiver can do between
 +receiving a message from a process and issuing the corresponding reply
 +message.  So, it could, for example, receive and process messages from other
 +processes until it gets what it needs, compute pi to 10_000 decimal places,
 +and then reply to the process that sent a message to it a long time ago.
 +
 +Reply() is used to re-awaken a process that sent a message that was
 +Receive()d by the current process.  The current process is expected to have
 +set up the far-memory reply buffer in whatever way the sending process
 +requires prior to issuing the Reply().
 +
 +The expected usage of buffers is for the sender to use near memory for the
 +request and reply buffers and access them as regular near memory to construct
 +and interpret request and reply messages.  The receiver will access the
 +buffers as far memory (which they may very well be since processes are
 +allowed to execute on different banks of internal memory and even on
 +different machines), and may wish to fetch parts of messages into near memory
 +for processing.  The use of far pointers makes it so that data is copied only
 +when necessary.
 +
 +And that's it.  You only have this RPC mechanism for communicating with other
 +processes and for all I/O.  Well, that's not entirely true; the RPC stuff is
 +hidden behind the application program interface, which provides such facades
 +as the Open and Read system calls, and a very-low level interrupt
 +notification mechanism which a user process will not normally use.
 +
 +2.7. SYSTEM SERVERS
 +
 +Since all that user program has for IPC and I/O is the RPC mechanism, a
 +number of system server processes must be set up to allow a user program to
 +do anything useful.  These special servers execute as if they were regular
 +user programs but provide service that is normally implemented directly into
 +the operating system kernel.  There are a number of advantages and
 +disadvantages to organizing a system in this way.  A big advantage is that it
 +is easier to build a modular system like this, and a big disadvantage is that
 +you lose some performance to the overhead of the IPC mechanism.
 +
 +A useful implication of using servers rather than having user processes
 +execute inside of the kernel is mutual exclusion.  Servers effectively
 +serialize user requests.  I.e., user requests are serviced in order, strictly
 +one-at-a-time.  This is important because some of variables that need to be
 +manipulated in order to provide service must not be manipulated by multiple
 +processes simultaneously or you may get inconsistent results.  To provide
 +mutually exclusive access to shared variables in a monolithic system, either
 +ugly and problematic semaphores must be used, or more-restrictive, simpler
 +mechanisms like allowing only one user process to enter the kernel.
 +
 +2.7.1. PROCESS SERVER
 +
 +This server is responsible for starting and terminating user processes.
 +Because of the way that the procedure is organized, the process server is
 +actually quite responsive dispite all of the work that must be done in order
 +to start up and terminate a user process.
 +
 +The server is highly integrated with the kernel, and it is able to do things
 +that regular user processes cannot (like manipulate kernel data structures),
 +but it still functions as an independent entity, as a regular user process.
 +Its code is physically a part of the kernel for bootstrapping purposes, since
 +it can hardly be used to start itself.
 +
 +When you wish to run a new program, a request message is sent to the process
 +server.  This message includes the filename of the program to run, the
 +arguments to the new program, environmental variables, and a synchronous/
 +asynchronous flag.  If you want to run a sub-process synchronously, the
 +process server does not reply to your request until the new process
 +terminates.  If you select asynchronous mode, the process server replies to
 +your request as soon as the new process is created.  Both of these modes are
 +quite useful in Unix (although Unix has a more complicated mechanism for
 +providing the service) (think "&" and no-"&" on command lines), so they are
 +provided here.
 +
 +The process server allocates and initializes the kernel data structures
 +necessary for process management, and then starts the process running
 +bootstrapping code in the kernel.  Since this code is in the kernel, it is
 +known to be trustworthy.  The process then bootstraps itself by opening the
 +program file, reading the memory requirements, allocating sufficient memory,
 +reading in the program file, relocating the program for whatever memory
 +address it happened to load in at (bank relocation is no problem) and
 +far-calling the main routine (finally).  The return is set up on the stack to
 +kill the process.
 +
 +Since the process bootstraps itself, the process server's involvement in the
 +process creation procedure is minimal, and the process server is ready to
 +process new requests with minimal delay (maximal responsiveness).  This
 +self-bootstrapping user process concept comes from my Master's Thesis.
 +Another advantage of having a process server is that you can start a process
 +running on any machine from any other machine in exactly the same way you
 +would start a process on the local machine; we have achieved transparentness,
 +Park.
 +
 +The process server also takes care of process destruction (exit or kill) and
 +provides other less-significant services, like reading and setting the
 +current date and time.  The mechanism by which process destruction is done is
 +similar to the self-bootstrapping idea and is discussed, probably
 +inappropriately, in the next section.
 +
 +The server is located by having a well-known address.  That is, the process
 +id is a constant and hard-coded into clients.  Well-known addresses are small
 +integer values, for each machine (a machine-id is encoded into process ids),
 +and these integers are indexes into a small look-up table with the actual
 +addresses for well-known addresses, so the process ids aren't pinned but can
 +be used as if they were pinned.
 +
 +2.7.2. MEMORY SERVER
 +
 +The memory server handles the dynamic allocation and deallocation of far
 +memory.  The client specifies in the request message the exact types of
 +memory that it can use, and the server gets the memory, sets the ownership to
 +the process, and returns a pointer.  Deallocation of some of the memory owned
 +by a process is handled easily.
 +
 +There is also a call that deallocates all memory owned by a certain user
 +process.  This call is normally only called by the process server*, since the
 +memory of the user program is be deallocated along with the rest of the
 +process' memory.  A record is kept internally for each process about what
 +types and banks (later) of memory it has used so that bulk deallocation can
 +be done efficiently when the process exits.
 +
 +A client process can also ask that far memory be allocated on a remote
 +machine.  Remote memory is relatively slow to access, but it can be
 +convenient when you need LOTS of memory for a process.  The obvious way to
 +get at this remote memory is to simply send a message directly to the remote
 +memory server of the machine you want to allocate memory on, and this does
 +indeed work, so this is what we will do.  But, this doesn't record the fact
 +that you have allocated memory on a far machine by itself, and we don't want
 +to waste any effort in freeing all of the memory, both local and remote, that
 +a process owns when it terminates; i.e., we don't want to send deallocation
 +requests to all remote memory servers just to be sure.
 +
 +There are a few alternatives for solving this problem, but I think this is a
 +good place for a quick-and-dirty hack.  Whenever a user process sends a
 +message to a memory server (both local or remote, for whatever reason),
 +through the memory servers' well-known addresses, the bit corresponding to
 +the machine number (0-15) in a special 16-bit field of the sender's process
 +control block is set.  Then, when the process terminates, the termination
 +procedure (next) peeks at this special field and sends free-all messages to
 +all remote memory servers that the process in question has interacted with.
 +This insures that all memory in the entire distributed system that is
 +allocated to a process is tidied up when the process terminates.  Like the
 +process server, the memory server is integrated with the kernel.
 +
 +MORE PROCESS TERMINATION
 +
 +Come to think of it, I should talk more about process termination.  The best
 +idea would probably be for a user process to terminate itself, in the same
 +way that it bootstraps itself.  A termination message is sent by a client
 +process that wants to kill someone to the process server.  It is a valid
 +situation for a process to commit suicide.  The termination message includes
 +the process id to be terminated and the exit code for the termination.
 +
 +The process server then suspends the doomed process' execution and rigs the
 +process' context so that the next thing it executes is the process shutdown
 +code inside of the kernel.  This shutdown code closes all of the files that
 +the process has opened through the standard library calls (and other server-
 +resources held), deallocates all memory held by the process, maybe does some
 +other cleanup work, and then sends a special message to the process server to
 +remove the process control block.  The process server will only accept this
 +special message from the process that is terminating after the first phase of
 +the process shutdown has been completed, to insure a proper termination.  The
 +process control block is then deallocated and may be used again.  The process
 +server is the only process that is allowed to manipulate process control
 +blocks.
 +
 +Come to think of it, there is a slight problem with process initialization:
 +getting a copy of the arguments and environmental variables for an
 +asynchronously started new process.  We don't want the sender to continue
 +before the new process has had a chance to make a copy of the arguments and
 +environment, so we will rig things so that it is the newly started process
 +that sends the reply message back to the parent process.  Another dirty hack.
 +
 +2.7.3. FILE SERVERS
 +
 +Each disk drive in the system has a special server that provides an interface
 +for executing Open, Read, Write, Close, and a number of other common file
 +operations.  A big problem with distributed operating systems is resource
 +reclamation for processes that die.  There are a few ways to provide this,
 +and each has implications about the overall design of a server.
 +
 +One possibility is to have "stateless servers" In other words, each server
 +does not keep track of, for example, which files a process has open or the
 +current file positions.  Each time a read request comes in, the server opens
 +the file to be used, positions to the section of the file, performs the
 +operation, and closes the file again.  This sounds like a lot of work, but
 +some intelligent caching makes it work efficiently.  And if a user process
 +dies without closing all of its files, it doesn't matter since the files will
 +be closed anyway, logically at the completion of each operation.  But, this
 +approach doesn't really work well with Commodore-DOS, which we will be using
 +for devices for which we don't have a custom device driver, so we won't use
 +it.
 +
 +Another possibility is to have "semi-state" or "acknowledgementless" servers
 +(my own invention).  Here, the server keeps track of, for example, which
 +files are open but doesn't keep the file position.  When a request comes in,
 +the already-opened file is positioned according to the request and the file
 +operation takes place.  If a client dies unexpectedly, the open file control
 +block (FCB) is left behind, but the FCB will be closed and reused after a
 +certain period of time.  If the client actually hasn't died, then the
 +situation will be detected (through details not explained here) and the file
 +will be reopened as if nothing has happened.  Other contingencies like a dead
 +process' name being reused are handled too.  And the model works well with an
 +unreliable communication service.  But, again, this doesn't model the
 +Commodore-DOS very well.
 +
 +The final design considered is to have a registry of servers that that a
 +process has resources currently allocated on be associated with each process.
 +When a client makes an open request to the server (or some equivalent
 +resource-grabbing operation), the server checks to see if the client is
 +currently holding any other of the server's resources.  If so, then the
 +request is processes normally.  If not, then the server (or some agent on the
 +server's behalf) sends a message to the process server on the client's
 +machine telling the process server to record the fact that the client is (or
 +may be) holding some of the server's resources.  The process server records
 +the server's process id in the process control block of the client, and when
 +the client terminates, it will send a standard "release all of the resources
 +that I am (may be) holding on this server" to the server as part of the
 +client's shutdown procedure.  All of the client's open files will be closed,
 +etc.
 +
 +In this "registry" design, servers can be completely "stateful", e.g., they
 +would contain both an open file entry and the file position information, and
 +files would always open and close when we intuitively expect them to.  It is
 +assumed that the communication mechanism is reliable, which it is here.  This
 +mechanism *does* model Commodore-DOS well.  In fact, this idea is so nice
 +that I may redesign the memory allocation recovery mechanism to use this. 
 +There is a slight possibility of a "race condition" in this mechanism, but
 +nothing bad can happen because of it.  (This is just a note to myself: make
 +it so that if a process is killed while it is receive- or reply-blocked, then
 +ignore the reply from the server if the process id is reused; damn, there's
 +still a potential problem; I'll have to figure it out later; also watch out
 +for a distributed deadlock on the PCB list).
 +
 +So, our server supports the regular file operations and implements them in
 +pretty much the expected way, since it is a "stateful" server.  The main loop
 +of the server accepts a request, determines which type it is, extracts the
 +arguments, calls the appropriate local procedure, prepares the reply message,
 +replies, and goes back to the top of the loop.  Each opened file is
 +identified by a user process by a file control block number that has meaning
 +inside of the server, as per usual.  But, unlike with ACE, we need a special
 +"Dup" operation for passing open files to children.  Dup increments the
 +"reference count" of a FCB, and the reference count is decremented every time
 +a close operation takes place.  A file will only be "really" closed when the
 +reference count reaches zero.  Our system will not implement any security at
 +this time.
 +
 +Because of the abstraction of sending formatted messages to a server,
 +different types of disk drives (Commodore-DOS, custom-floppy, ramdisk) are
 +all dealt with in exactly the same way.  As one slight extension, we have to
 +hack our devices (at least some of them) a little to be able to handle
 +"symbolic links" in order to integrate well with the Prefix Server which is
 +described next.
 +
 +2.7.4. PREFIX SERVER
 +
 +The prefix server idea is stolen from the computer science literature about a
 +network operating system called "Sprite" The prefix server simply provides a
 +pathname lookup service for the pathnames of different disk-file and device
 +servers.  This is needed to provide a single, global, unified pathname space
 +on a system of multiple distributed file servers.  It works a lot like the
 +"mount table" in Unix.  Its prefix table looks something like the following:
 +
 +PREFIX      SERVER
 +------      ------
 +/           <1:ramdisk>
 +/dev/tty0   <1:console>
 +/fd1        <2:floppy1571>
 +
 +BTW, BOS uses Unix-style filenames rather than the Creative-Micro-Designs-
 +style filenames that ACE uses.
 +
 +If an application is given an absolute pathname, it will consult the prefix
 +server to resolve it to the process-id of an actual server.  For example, the
 +pathname "/fd1/bob/fred" would resolve to server "<2:floppy1571>", relative
 +pathname "bob/fred" Pathname "/" would resolve to server "<1:ramdisk>",
 +relative pathname "".
 +
 +The user process would then contact the appropriate server with the relative
 +pathname.  A user process can assume that the prefix table will not change
 +while the system is running, so some intelligent caching can be done.  Also,
 +directory tokens are given out for executing a "change directory" operation,
 +and these server/token pairs can be used for quick relative pathname
 +searches.  A symbolic link mechanism is needed to insure that these relative
 +searches always follow through correctly.
 +
 +2.7.5. DEVICE SERVERS
 +
 +Device servers are just another type of file server, except they control a
 +specific device other than a regular disk device, and they are likely to
 +support some custom operations and return error codes if some disk operations
 +are attempted.  The interface is identical to a file server for convenience.
 +
 +2.7.6. CONSOLE SERVER
 +
 +Just a specific device server.  It handles window management and console
 +calls, like WinClear, WinPut, GetKey, and ConWrite, that are used in ACE.
 +
 +2.8. ASYNCHRONOUS EVENT HANDLING
 +
 +As mentioned in the Process section above, there are many external events
 +that a process may have to wait for, including:  modem characters, disk drive
 +operations (if they are custom-programmed correctly), mouse & joystick
 +movements, and real-time delays.  There will be an AwaitEvent() kernel
 +primitive to allow a process to wait for one of these events to happen.
 +Normally, the only processes that wait for these events will be device
 +drivers.  The kernel will also have to do some low-level processing for of
 +some devices (like the modem and keyboard) to insure that things don't become
 +unnecessarily inefficient.
 +
 +3. KERNEL DESIGN
 +
 +Next time.
 +
 +4. SYSTEM SERVER DESIGN
 +
 +Next time.
 +
 +5. APPLICATION PROGRAM INTERFACE
 +
 +Next time.
 +
 +This is quite similar to the ACE-128/64 Programmer's Reference Guide, which
 +is available via anonymous FTP from "ccnga.uwaterloo.ca" in file
 +"/pub/cbm/os/ace/ace-r10-prg.doc" Release #10 of ACE was the most current
 +at the time of writing this article.
 +
 +6. CONCLUSION
 +
 +Next time.
 +
 +Implementation: someday, maybe.
 +
 +==================================================================---END---===
 +</code>
magazines/chacking8.txt · Last modified: 2015-04-17 04:34 by 127.0.0.1