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+<code>
+        __  __             ______
+       |  ||__|  ______   /  __  \   ______   __  __   ______    ____   __  __
+   ____|  | __  /  __  \ |  |  |__|_/  __  \ |  ||  | /  __  \  /    \ |  ||  |
+  /  __ / ||  ||  |__|__||  | |____/  |  |  ||  ||  ||  |__|  ||  ||__||  ||  |
+ |  |  |  ||  |`\____  \ |  | |____\  |  |  ||  ||  ||   _____||  |  W |  ||  |
+ |  |__|  ||  ||  |__|  ||  |__|  ||  |__|  ||  ||  ||  |__|  ||  |  a |  ||  |
+ `\_______||__|`\______/'`\______/'`\______/'`\____/'`\______/'| /'  D `\    /'
+          _     _  _ __ ___ ____ ______________________________|/________|  |
+           _     _  _ __ ___ ____ _________________________________________/'
+             The   Journal   of   the   Commodore   Enthusiast
+                     I s s u e  2  :  October 1, 1996
+                             P R E A M B L E
+We greet you to the second issue of disC=overy, the Journal of the Commodore
+Enthusiast.  Our inspiration for launching this work derives from you, the
+ones who still hold our beloved 8-bit machines in high regard and respect.
+In honor of your committment to these classic platforms we have pledged
+ourselves to assemble this entire journal on modest C64 and C128 systems.
+It is our sincerest hope that you will find our efforts to be of interest
+and special joy.  We thank you from the bottom of our hearts and look forward
+to forging a solid productive relationship with the C= 8-bit community.
+  - Mike Gordillo, Steven Judd, Ernest Stokes, and the authors of disC=overy.
+                A R T I C L E S    O F    O P E R A T I O N
+Article 1 : Mission Statement
+Our intent is to present useful information in order to enhance and preserve
+the knowledge base of the Commodore 8-bit domain, including, but not limited
+to, the Commodore 64 and Commodore 128 home computers.  To this end, we shall
+require that every article contain what in our discretion should be a viable
+Commodore 8-bit hardware and/or software point of relevance.  Likewise, each
+issue should include material that can both potentially enlighten the most
+saavy of users as well as the layman.  We intend to complement and assist all
+others engaged in similar endeavours.  We believe it is of paramount concern
+to stave off entropy as long as possible.
+Article 2 : disC=overy Staff
+The current staff of disC=overy, the Journal of the Commodore Enthusiast,
+is as follows:
+      Editor-in-Chief       : Mike Gordillo  (s0621126@dominic.barry.edu)
+      Associate/Tech Editor : Steven Judd    (judd@nwu.edu)
+      Webmaster             : Ernest Stokes  (drray@eskimo.com)
+      disC=overy, issue 2 logo by 'WaD'
+We invite any and all interested parties to join us as authors, panelists,
+and staff members.
+Article 3 : General Procedures
+- Submission Outline -
+a. Articles may range in size from 1 kilobyte and up.  Approximately 15
+   kilobytes of text is the preferred length, including any software present.
+b. Sufficient technical content about Commodore 8-bit home computers,
+   concerning software and/or hardware relevant to these systems, is a
+   requirement.  What constitutes a sufficient amount of 'technical
+   content' is left to the discretion of the Editor-in-Chief and/or the
+   review panel (see below).
+- Staff Priorities -
+The Editor-in-Chief shall supervise the organization of each issue in regards
+to grammatical and syntactical errors, flow of content, and overall layout of
+presentation.  The Editor-in-Chief and Associate Editor shall form a review
+panel whose function it shall be to referee literary work which the Editor
+in-Chief has deemed to be of advanced technical merit.  The Editor-in-Chief
+iand disC=overy, the Journal of the Commodore Enthusiast, shall retain
+copyright solely on the unique and particular presentation of its included body
+of literary work in its entirety.  Authors shall retain all copyrights and
+responsibilities with regards to the content of their particular literary
+work.  Authors shall be required to submit their works to the Editor-in-Chief
+approximately two weeks prior to publication.
+Article 4 : Peer Review
+To the best of our knowledge, disC=overy shall be the first Commodore 8-bit
+journal with a review panel dedicated to uphold the technical integrity and
+legitimacy of its content.  The Editor-in-Chief and the Associate Editor
+shall be responsible for the formation of the panel.  The appointed
+panelists shall have the option of anonymity if desired.  The panel shall
+review works primarily for technical merit if the Editor-in-Chief and
+the Associate Editor deem it necessary.  Authors may be asked to modify
+their works in accordance with the panel's recommendations.  The Editor-in-
+Chief shall have final discretion regarding all such "refereed" articles.
+Article 5 : Distribution
+Although we welcome open distribution by non-commercial organizations, there
+are currently three "secure" distribution channels available to interested
+parties.  This journal may be obtained by directly mailing the Editor-in-Chief
+or via the World Wide Web at http://www.eskimo.com/~drray/discovery.html and
+at FTP site : ftp.eskimo.com - directory /u/t/tpinfo/C64/Magazines/discovery
+Several versions of this journal may be available for your convenience, please
+check with the aforementioned sources.
+Article 6 : Disclaimers
+The Editor-in-Chief and disC=overy, the Journal of the Commodore Enthusiast,
+retain all copyrights regarding the presentation of its articles.  Authors
+retain all copyrights on their specific articles in and of themselves,
+regarding the full legal responsibility concerning the originality of their
+works and its contents.
+The Editor-in-Chief and disC=overy, the Journal of the Commodore Enthusiast,
+grants the reader an exclusive license to redistribute each issue in its
+entirety without modification or omission under the following additional
+stipulations:
+      - If distribution involves physical media and is part of a commercial,
+        not-for-profit, or PD distribution, the maximum allowable monetary
+        charge shall not exceed $4 1996 United States Dollars per issue
+        unless more than one issue is distributed on a single media item
+        (i.e., two or more issues on one disk), in which case maximum
+        allowable charge shall not exceed $4 1996 United States Dollars per
+        media item.  All dollar values given assume shipping costs are
+        -included- as part of the maximum allowable charge.
+      - If distribution involves non-physical media and is part of a
+        commercial, not-for-profit, or PD distribution, the maximum
+        allowable charge shall be limited to the actual cost of the
+        distribution, whether said cost be in the form of telephony or
+        other electronic means.
+**!** - Software included within articles (as text) may be subject to separate
+        distribution requirements as binary executables.  Please check directly
+        with authors regarding distribution of software in binary form.
+It is understood that distribution denotes acceptance of the terms listed and
+that under no condition shall any particular party claim copyright or public
+domain status to disC=overy, the Journal of the Commodore Enthusiast, in its
+entirety.
+The Editor-in-Chief and disC=overy, the Journal of the Commodore Enthusiast,
+reserve the right to modify any and all portions of the Preamble and the
+Articles of Operation.
+:::::::::::d:i:s:C=:o:v:e:r:y:::::::::::::::::i:s:s:u:e::2::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::T A B L E  O F  C O N T E N T S:::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+-Software Section-
+/S01 - "Innovation in the 90s : The Super Hi-Res Flexible Line
+$d000    Interpretation Technique"
+        by Roland Toegel and 'Count Zero'
+/S02 - "Scrollies exposed : A look at simple scroll-text routines"
+$d000   by 'XmikeX', with contributions from Asger Alstrup
+/S03 - "The Raster StarterKit, A classic 'slice' of VIC-II code"
+$d000   by 'XmikeX' and 'Dokken'
+/S04 - "Heaven in the net, an unedited excerpt of IRC on #c-64"
+$d000   by Mike Gordillo
+/S05 - "A demo of 'disC=overy', The exploration of rotation"
+$d000   by John Kaiser
+/S06 - "SID Primer: The Working Man's Guide to SID"
+$d400   by Stephen L. Judd
+/S07 - "Progenitor of the SID : An interview with Bob Yannes"
+$d400   by Andreas Varga
+/S08 - "Z80, The basics of it"
+h   by 'Raver'
+-Hardware Section-
+/H01 - "Charger up!  The VIC-20 to ATARI 2600 'Ram Cartridge' Programmer"
+        by Ravid Noam
+/H02 - "The 8 bit Modplay 128 Board, a three-diode addition"
+        by Nate Dannenberg
+/H03 - "The Virtual PLUS/4 : Upgrading your C16 to 64 Kilobytes!"
+        by Martin Gierich
+/H04 - "Continued Lt. Kernal Hard Drive Support"
+        by Ron Fick
+/H05 - "The Metal Shop"
+        with SMS Mike Eglestone
+-Corrections-
+$2bad - E R R A T A
+:::::::::::d:i:s:C=:o:v:e:r:y:::::::::::::::::i:s:s:u:e::2::::::::::::::::::::
+/S01::$d000:::::::::::::::::::S O F T W A R E:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+                        : Innovation in the 90s :
+     The Super Hi-Res Interlace Flexible Line Interpretation Technique
+         by  Roland Toegel (Crossbow/Crest) and Count Zero/TRC*SCS
+Prelude from Count Zero
+--------+--+--+--------
+First seen earlier this year, the new SHIFLI video technique that is described
+in this article is -the- paramount example of programming brilliance.  The
+inventor of the technique, Roland Toegel (Crossbow of Crest), was helpful
+in providing the original SHIFLI documentation, which I translated from the
+German into the English text that follows for the exclusive use of the
+disC=overy journal.
+So without further ado, let us now learn from Mr. Toegel how to achieve
+the award winning :
+   'Super Hires InterLace Flexible Line Interpretation' Graphics mode !
+Please note that the technique is described primarily for Commodore computers
+based on the European/Australian PAL TV standard. NTSC-based Commodore machines
+require an extra 2 cycles per line.  This may require the programmer to time
+out the routines by hand, but this should not be a major obstacle to overcome.
+Count Zero
+--
+i.      Forward
+As the inventor of the SHI-FLI mode, I am pleased to have the services of
+Count Zero and the disC=overy journal for the dissemination of my technique
+into the English language.  I must add that the text below does require the
+reader to be already familiar to a high degree with VIC-II programming on the
+C64.  I would suggest books such as 'Mapping the 64' and the programming texts
+found at ftp.funet.fi /pub/cbm ..etc., for a solid base of instruction.  Also,
+some terms used in this document (e.g., mix-color) are meant to be uniquely
+descriptive and hence, will not be found in any 'standard' programming text.
+The terminology is a result of the strain that occurs when new methodology
+meets old semantics.  However, the experienced programmer should find the
+words to be self-evident in the context which they are used.
+--
+.      Introduction to Super Hires
+Super-Hires Interlace FLI : The absolute successor of the Super-Hires-Modes.
+Just like normal Super-Hires, the width is 96 Hires Pixels, which is equal to
+Characters or 4 Sprites next to each other.  For visual enjoyment this
+area is centered though using Char-Position 15 to 26 (included) on the
+screen.  The Y-Axis is 167 pixels high having nearly 21 Character lines or
+Sprites and to have as much flexibility as possible on choosing colors or
+pixels, 2 sprites are overlayed, 4 times next to each other (8 sprites on
+the rasterline) over the bitmap graphics.  Due to the fact that all 8 sprites
+are used for a 96 * 21 pixel-wide area, a small multiplexer is needed to
+juggle all 8 sprites for 8 times (every 21 rasterlines and with individual
+patterns).  We thereby win 2 colors plus the 2 normal colors of the Hires-
+Bitmap Mode in an 8*8 pixel block.  Please note that the 2 additional colors
+are the same throughout the whole picture.
+.      Super Hires with FLI !?!
+FLI is for most coders still quite hard. Sprites over FLI for most quite
+impossible. Maybe one or two sprites, but 8 !?! next to each other and
+still FLI in each rasterline!  Hard to believe, eh?
+First of all you need to know how to do FLI and what it does and also
+what effect sprites have on it.
+.1     Normal FLI
+On each eighth rasterline (the Badlines, the first rasterline of each charline)
+the VIC stops the processor for 40-43 cycles to read the new Characters and
+colors of the video and color-ram.  This is the case when the bits 0-2 of the
+registers $D011 and $D012 are the same.  Now if you change on each rasterline
+the bits 4-7 of $D018, which holds the length of the video-ram (handling the
+colors on bitmap graphics) and set the bits 0-2 of $D011 to get a badline on
+each rasterline, you will get new colors on each rasterline in the bitmap
+graphics.  The only condition to be followed is that on each rasterline 23
+cycles are used whereby for the *used cycles - 22* char of the textline the
+next 3 chars the byte $FF (light grey) is read from the video ram and the
+FLI effect starts after that (the FLI bug).  In the multicolor mode for the
+color-ram the next byte in the program after writing to $D011 is chosen as
+the color.  As we are using the Hires Mode here, this is irrelevant.
+> NOTE: The last 3 sentences were pretty hard to translate and I advise you
+>       to read other articles about FLI aswell, if you want to know more
+>       about Multicolor FLI. (CZ)
+.2     Sprites over FLI
+So what does a sprite do over FLI?  Pretty simple, as it just eats up some
+cycles.  All 8 sprites use 19 cycles per rasterline, meaning in case we code
+our FLI routine without loops, we just need 2 LDA, STA commands (for $D018
+and $D011), using 12 cycles per rasterline.  All together with the 8 used
+sprites that makes 31 cycles.  Thus, the 'light grey' FLI-Bug occurs on
+char-positions 9,10 and 11 and from char 12+, the FLI effect comes up.  This
+doesn't matter much to us, as the Super Hires Picture starts at Char-Pos 15.
+We therefore get 3 cycles per rasterline for other commands.
+.      Mulitplexing over FLI
+Now we rather have to increase the Y-Coordinates of the sprites by 21 pixels
+each 21 rasterlines and give them new patterns.  As we use 8 different
+video-rams on FLI for the colors and the sprite-pointers are always at the
+end of the video-ram, we are supposed to write 8 * 8 values for the patterns
+plus 8 values for the Y-Coordinates, resulting in 72 different addresses.
+Thats far too much for a single rasterline and adding the FLI routine will
+bust the limits.  Therefore we have to do a little trick.
+.1     Changing the sprite-pointers
+The trick is not to change anything at all!  On the other hand we don't want
+the patterns to look the same everywhere.  Luckily, the height of a sprite
+(21 pixels) is not capable of being divided by the height of a textline
+(8) and the smallest mutual multiple is 168 (meaning 21 * 8).  As we are
+writing (due to the FLI) a new value to $D018 on each rasterline and we use
+video rams, we can abuse this and have different sprite-pointers on every
+video-ram.  The handling of where the graphics for the sprite-patterns are
+located becomes a little bit confusing, but it doesn't eat up any rastertime
+as we don't have to change the pointers.
+.1.1   Table to illustrate the sprite pattern-handling
+Spriteline      Video-Ram     Screenline (NOT equal to rasterline!)
+               1             1
+               2             2
+               3             3
+               4             4
+               5             5
+               6             6
+               7             7
+               8             8
+               1             9
+              2             10
+              3             11
+              4             12
+              5             13
+              6             14
+              7             15
+              8             16
+              1             17
+              2             18
+              3             19
+              4             20
+              5             21
+--------------------------------
+               6             22
+               7             23
+               8             24
+               1             25
+.               .             .
+.               .             .
+.               .             .
+              1             41
+              2             42
+--------------------------------
+               3             43
+               4             44
+               5             45
+.               .             .
+.               .             .
+.               .             .
+.1.2   Example
+Small example for Sprite 0 under the following conditions:
+Used 8 Video-Rams            : $4000 - $5FFF
+content of the sprite-pointer: $43F8  80 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
+                               $47F8  81 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
+                               $4BF8  82 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
+                               $4FF8  83 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
+                               $53F8  84 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
+                               $57F8  85 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
+                               $5BF8  86 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
+                               $5FF8  87 00 00 00 00 00 00 00
+Thus the Sprite-Patterns are in memory from $6000-$61FF.
+Therefore the pattern-handling looks like this:
+Screenline      Memorylocation
+               $6000-$6002
+               $6043-$6045
+               $6086-$6088
+               $60C9-$60CB
+               $610C-$610E
+               $614F-$6151
+               $6192-$6194
+               $61D5-$61D7
+               $6018-$601A
+              $605B-$605D
+              $609E-$60A0
+              $60E1-$60E3
+              $6124-$6126
+              $6167-$6169
+              $61AA-$61AC
+              $61ED-$61EF
+              $6030-$6032
+              $6073-$6075
+              $60B6-$60B8
+              $60F9-$60FB
+              $613C-$613E
+              $6180-$6182
+              $61C3-$61C5
+.               .
+.               .
+.               .
+.1.3   Remark to the display-routine of the editor
+As the changing of the video-ram on the editor-routine happens inside of the
+textscreen (but the spritepointers are read inside the sideborder), the change
+takes effect one rasterline later.  This means that whenever the colors for
+the bitmap of color ram 2 are read, the sprite pointers or video ram 1 are
+still active.  This is the reason why the editor uses only 167 screenlines
+(instead of 168) and why the first textline of the first video-ram and the
+first rasterline of the bitmap stays empty.
+.2     Changing the Sprite Y-Values
+As the changing of the sprite pointers more or less happens by itself, we just
+have to make sure the correct Y-Value comes into the game.  These are still
+values, but they don't have to be set in one rasterline and we got 21
+rasterlines to set them.  As we have just 3 cycles left on each rasterline on
+the FLI routine described and that wouldn't be enough for a simple LDA : STA,
+we have to change the FLI routine a little bit.
+.2.1   Load new sprite Y-Value
+As the height of all sprites is the same, we just have to do a single
+LDX #$VALUE.  Therefore, 2 of the 3 free cycles are used and we cannot do
+anything else with the last free cycle.
+LDX #$VALUE
+LDA #$08
+STA $D018
+LDA #$38
+STA $D011
+.2.2   Load next but one $D011 value
+As a STA $SPRITE0Y needs 4 cycles, we cannot include it in the next rasterline,
+but we can already load the next $D011 value into the Y-Register.  The free
+cycle stays unused.
+LDY #$3A
+LDA #$18
+STA $D018
+LDA #$39
+STA $D011
+.2.3   Write new Sprite Y-Value
+As we already did the loading of the $D011 value for the next line, we now
+have 5 cycles left and therefore enough time for a STA $SPRITE0Y.
+STX $SPRITE0Y
+LDA #$28
+STA $D018
+STY $D011
+Now plot 3.2.2 and 3.2.3 have to be repeated for the remaining 7 sprites with
+changed values for $D011 and $D018.  So there is now 1 rasterline for loading
+the new sprite Y-value and 8 * 2 rasterlines to write the new sprite Y-Value.
+We now have 17 rasterlines and the 4 remaining ones just need an additional
+NOP so that all rasterlines use the same amount of cycles.
+.2.4   Remark to the Display-routine of the editor
+For simplification of the routine, which generates the FLI routine, in the
+remaining 4 rasterlines an LDX #$VALUE was used instead of an NOP.
+.      Memory-allocation
+Now video-rams, the bitmap, and the sprites have to be placed reasonable in
+a VIC-Bank.  As the banks from $0000 - $3FFF and $8000 - $BFFF are useless
+for graphics due to the overlay of the Char-rom we choose the back from
+$4000 - $7FFF for now.
+.1     Video-rams
+The 8 video-rams need $2000 Bytes.  They are located from $4000 - $5FFF.
+.2     Bitmap
+The bitmap needs $1F40 Bytes.  It's located at $6000 - $7F3F.
+.3     Sprites
+As we need 2 sprites overlayed (four times next to each other and 8 times
+below each other), we need 2 * 4 * 8 sprites, meaning 64 overall.  We need
+$1000 bytes for the sprites.  We check what the video-rams and the bitmaps
+already allocate and recognize that only $7F40 - $7FFF, enough memory for
+sprites, is left open.  How do we rectify this situation?
+As the video-rams and the bitmap just need a small part for displaying the
+picture, the sprites can be put into the spare parts of the video-rams and
+the bitmap.  They have to be masked by choosing the right color in the video-
+rams.
+A textline of a bitmap covers $140 bytes.  Our Super Hires cutout just needs
+$60 bytes though and is centered.  Thus the first and the last $70 bytes of
+a textline of the bitmap is free.  As a sprite needs $40 bytes, we can put 2
+sprites in each textline of the bitmap (one to the left and one to the right).
+Due to the height of the picture (21 textlines), this results in space for
+sprites.  From textline 22 on (in memory from $7A40) we can use the whole
+textline for sprites, resulting in 5 sprites per line.  Continuing this until
+textline 24 (included), we have space for 15 additional sprites.  So overall
+we already have 57 sprites and just 7 are missing now.  These we could place
+in the remaining free area of the bitmap ($7E00-$7FFF), but that's not very
+efficient as we have some space left in the video-rams.
+The Textline of a video-ram contains $28 bytes.  The Super Hires cutout just
+needs the middle $0C bytes.  As the sprites we put to the left and to the right
+of the picture are supposed to be invisible, we need to set a background-color
+in the video-ram (in our case, the color light-grey $FF).  So we don't have
+enough spare room for the sprites to the left and the right of the picture
+in the video-ram.
+If we finish the FLI Routine from textline 22 on and keep the video-ram on
+until the end of the screen (filling the this area ($4370-$43E8) with the
+backgroundcolor $FF to hide the sprites) we can use the remaining 7 video-rams
+from textline 22 (from $4770, $4B70, $4F70, $5370, $5770, $5B70, $5F70) for
+one sprite each.  Now we have placed all 64 sprites and the allocation of the
+sprite pointers looks like this:
+$43F8  80 84 85 89 8A 8E 8F 93
+$47F8  94 98 99 9D 9E A2 A3 A7
+$4BF8  A8 AC AD B1 B2 B6 B7 BB
+$4FF8  BC C0 C1 C5 C6 CA CB CF
+$53F8  D0 D4 D5 D9 DA DE DF E3
+$57F8  E4 E8 E9 EA EB EC ED EE
+$5BF8  EF F0 F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
+$5FF8  F7 1E 2E 3E 4E 5E 6E 7E
+The pointers from $80 to $E4 are the 2 sprites which are left and right
+next to the picture in the bitmap.
+The pointers from $E8 to $F7 are the sprites from textline 22 to 24 below
+the picture in the bitmap.
+The pointers from $1E to $7E are the sprites from textline 22 to 24 below
+the picture in the video-rams.
+.      Interlace
+Until now we had the normal Super Hires FLI mode, supplying the basics for
+interlace.  For the interlace mode we need 2 pictures of this kind switching,
+displayed 25 times per second (PAL).  As such a picture fits into the VIC-Bank
+from $4000 - $7FFF and we have another VIC-Bank ($C000-$FFFF) with the same
+assumptions we can easily place the 2nd picture there.
+We had in the Super Hires FLI mode (on a 8 * 1 pixel-area) the choice between
+colors (2 sprite-colors, being the same for the whole picture + 2 FLI
+colors).  Now, in the interlace mode, we have the choice between 16 mix-colors,
+meaning the combined 4 colors from picture one and two.  When using interlace,
+mix-colors are created except for the case when the same colors are used for
+both pictures on the same 8 * 1 pixel-area (Check the following example) :
+      Pic2 ->        Sprite1:$E [ Sprite2:$0 [ FLI1:$6 [ FLI2:$9
+----------------------------------------------------------------
+Pic1    Sprite1:$1  [   $1E     [    $10     [   $16   [   $19
+  [     Sprite2:$3  [   $3E     [    $30     [   $36   [   $39
+  V     FLI1   :$E  [   $EE     [    $E0     [   $E6   [   $E9
+        FLI2   :$6  [   $6E     [    $60     [   $66   [   $69
+This results in the following 16 mixcolors:
+. White-Lightblue
+. Cyan-Lightblue
+. Lightblue-Lightblue (pure Lightblue)
+. Blue-Lightblue
+. White-Black
+. Cyan-Black
+. Lightblue-Black
+. Blue-Black
+. White-Blue
+. Cyan-Blue
+. Lightblue-Blue
+. Blue-Blue (pure Blue)
+. White-Brown
+. Cyan-Brown
+. Lightblue-Brown
+. Blue-Brown
+When choosing the colors you should take care that the brightness-values of
+the 2 mix-colors are about the same and that they do not differ by more than
+brightness steps, as things otherwise start to flicker too much.
+(e.g. Black-White flickers a lot).
+Here is a table with brightness-values from light to dark.
+(Colors on the same line have the same brightness)
+$1     : White
+$7, $D : Yellow, Lightgreen
+$3, $F : Cyan,   Lightgrey
+$5, $A : Green,  Lightred
+$C, $E : Grey,   Lightblue
+$4, $8 : Lilac (Purple), Orange
+$2, $B : Red ,   Darkgrey
+$6, $9 : Blue,   Brown
+$0     : Black
+.      Additional Graphics (Not handled by the editor)
+We found out that on the left or right of the picture in the bitmap, $70 bytes
+was left for spritedata.  We used just $40 bytes of that space, meaning we
+still have $30 bytes (6 Chars or 48 Pixels) left to both sides of the picture.
+.1     Left to the picture
+Our Super Hires Picture starts at position 15.  The spare $30 bytes are from
+position 9 to 14.  As we use 14 cycles in our FLI routine and the 8 sprites use
+cycles per rasterline, the light-grey FLI Bug now uses the chars 11, 12, 14.
+Thus meaning we could use char 14 for Hires FLI.  On chars 9 and 10 we could
+just use 2 different colors (respectively 4 mix-colors for interlace) on the
+height of 21 textlines in the bitmap, as the FLI effect starts from Char 14 and
+before that no new data (colors in this case) are read from the video-ram.
+The colors are in the first video-ram in memory from $4008+$4009 respectively
+$C008+$c009.
+.2     Right to the picture
+Our Super Hires Picture lasts until char-position 26.  The spare $30 bytes in
+the bitmap are from position 27 - 32.  Here we could use all 6 chars for Hires
+FLI (or Interlace Hires FLI).
+.      Memory-allocation of a picture startable with RUN
+The included SHIFLI picture, once unpacked, can be easily modified for your own
+use, as follows :
+$0801-$080C Basic Startline
+$080D-$0860 Routine for copying the Graphic-data to the correct memory area
+$0861-$095B Routine which is setting the I/O registers and creates the
+            display-routine (from $085F-$10FB)
+$095C-$475B Data of the 1. Picture (to be copied to $4000)
+$475C-$855B Data of the 2. Picture (to be copied to $C000)
+.      Conclusion
+That's it ... for further information check the editor code and other sources,
+most likely available at ftp sites such as ftp.funet.fi /pub/cbm ..etc., etc.
+Included is the uuencoded version of the X96 Graphics C-64 Contest Winner by
+Deekay/Crest.  It was NTSC/PAL-fixed by the people of the American MegaGroup,
+Style.
+--
+For questions or comments concerning this article :
+Roland Toegel is available at      : toegelrd@trick.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de
+Count Zero/TRC*SCS is available at : count0@mail.netwave.de
+begin 644 x96-winner
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+M5J[8['ZP3(C8,'!0(.C0F@<^</CV$Q'QDG=3!H_G;V<O^?-$</@FCG*H('",
+M#8"IN!*\AY]C*J?D0:%W=2S/,@ETG%D57MA9 1Q#;P8#X<=Z<U63!O;81'/P
+M4NQ' PK(:BX"P(@!@MOQE$"-KB^0A^P!!B.4Y9[D P^0V FK!@W,>](G%^</
+M!MVXCC< "V5/,VIF3@^P9F(\#%@) @8&!@<,"@T4&?H\_+!X\/!Q]=!?H*"@
+M4&_M?$ L#Q=L^^]\;WGN]N[WI,9R8#!0L"B8?(>S8&=_9B9R@F9&V#_8B!GU
+MJ @CF#[T9&" (D!'_P>JY*,J1S ^ SL&9\]: *Y '5T4 P@/A]48\HW68U57
+M-7+J"L?93#&[L'RZMDP*_ >[2C\+J.A!.7E< +*(/%D;6LBP= 5'Z$(B>;*/
+M+*)03J9 8:R,[ $E9)QGZL9,,KM)=2K@23(^=C4 8V-C(WPS0&H!!PG\U  <
+M!DI!@!DT(5ES9[?G_/S\>+EXN/G@<6TA0 #9!  '"W<>^W?  WM]>CV8+(2:
+MSN;MY^@!#@5%  6 QL;&Q,+FS#"" 0I5^O[X5T#W__CP 2JP"0I5JH8EJ"U
+MH$#H_=ET/[)!#C@)@)(#(//Z!$SMI;Y?:2@@ ].NAA1OCS <YD)5PE59!@S@
+M"0B $/Q*RLD1<_BH!MI7]AQD2L1M "<!F!Q]9@(6J@@,EIX .< !+EI&!4(9
+M+GC@ 200!R1>\,!@,:Z0K+H@@G*A?//:EC( ,S$QRF/1#P,' P,#@X&&@(:]
+MV1PGSYS@JB\Y*XVXV?D;L42*!LX:,<A40,# '_\?O?\'!P=^/S_@X>'AP?.Y
+M_1:57P!A 6% VEP!4HF *GS,C(PZ;384%2L5Z@55KWO_:0&+_Y(U]/ZR__VH
+M((# Y/#DAW6<$!--' '36@/>13MJ1$)'!Z)%-/(DQG4-XJ9("*0N0V,H9@N)
+MLJQ@]I%\+"IC?@1*V-"*F3! 9Y]/4U;[()GA^%I>&,$. !M #^RIK)L&2I_3
+M;6 &&=[\(&QQ-B^<P%_DYX07]):4?G<92IB8B(B(8SN#W)*7H,&@T/YE_U-A
+M"203F^@34"!@8!#0,."X2BT/'P\/'A[!P8&!X!XT ,:09^8G X#H!0N6"(&8
+MF9D9&1$1$98B^$>C6 H'/_*O$!<&FHC!A4- $Y,78B,.J38P*COC!/#*0R<E
+M& 'RJS.C,PQ$<4-WD*:J0,NI.N"S!8,( \*@?8)X(S]2&-9."F-C;Y]HZ:>'
+M 1ANBA:UD+('DQ(&S$\'50 O:_CFKP"#&P(,$0WF0(1(_WF:'X>9&'K8;3"#
+M/@+8LE,=)!_:F6/ !A _ YCQ:&:&#/H#.0)J3R_H.1XRXA+,R:)2B&36%3-G
+M,NNB59V?#+#,4; CD&"4)B$!99CATSL8QY ">-H62Z"4)8UB41> /-(NTNT
+MH"$LX&P(.@J.@T'@.>IAXTJ9 $D .$ @3-[.4% @K,@$ PIY.X(S @,D $7U
+M0+G"0C@8/ &@$##%>SL53@%P@+2?"/T#7 Z&&I:EYAJ$&*B3\,@3!0$Z-PR$
+M@D&XGQ,& ?H>)3 S2$ZE "436@#VMH!  CA%U_'ZI !-.30""83V':4P&:91
+MMZ;L&,P90:;&!5*-.UB(-_A[CI@MN #.@GR$,,!W< TW?6R3NWHYW!A!C-B7
+M@0'&V0";M\Y!1GH(Y5R5P/C<0T  S* _*4TF%E/"#$E(GZR( LG@I!R R 41
+M/!"(8. ,8%!"!TP)"W5&-];#"'11[@'8%!\/RDVN\)4% ODH0D!MA8>(" !T
+M*#  P".K_D,>"H *L0L'N@A( @SL$!S3Y@ V!W=)BQKL$3AQW@\;70$^ W,#
+M""'^ANZ9C"/"Q-T8.YP <8)] ;$!!(/>V^W97F)H)P<0'P.IMD(72?P%,P*3
+M9@!@P,;#2$1CK@!1P$^G!T>% *I[R(4$)C.NF,9!$,!DMB:E$-F5 !3%D 6%
+M_&< 0B+@TJ,'>D*" 6 #\M4"@"03B.+A]2&!C=^  X+ 4MC59I$.,4P!X!_$
+M&2F8  A(91.>0(*$AP+ACP!-52+SOV#14X"DP <#P 3$D"6&6H\$P! !#1^!
+MP#A"2OP@\15$)> !>  8%-*:AL'E0L&6!T)SB7$#!L#$ , "DM  3-&*G_ '
+M'B4<(4\P(.B C&C #0((L@ F!P^$"*5T@PGC* %_H+P #43"$+I  )@W_%W6
+M]((X"_<RD/B$$( W! $ UJ$08,; _'J,4 $'_IE P A@@!N[^ C&?@B  !W!
+M_ ##ZQN&E@8 EJ2](('_J0"-(-"-(="I :( XSO88-G VH#;!X/Q2(>0!""(
+M006"B00)!KT BIT !\K0Y2#D__#[K38(3! (EKR]E@W<7Q04!>/SR3J6@W\0
+M;)$4%<2O%P')2Q .43$P,"6"YJ59+DID)$$(#P7.H4$$<@(4L S[@HDOH9"&
+MX@(14#HR,+B3$P$<1&]J0D!<TY68#*B($IP0T3$6&40)AY<*=#FV).<XDQ%Y
+M321N30Q>#P\,IR_#1'!)0HR,#6/%48AI QJ)9",/L049)0LC1UP@"@]R*ND#
+M"V B""X2+G0["0=\#Q@I2( R#@<@(O0@,B(L$GHV-" 71WH((P,Z"#$D%P4!
+M"V,: C4("08,"2T%! G64Q*6"%P.!,#SX"0@LA$)#07A]0586HTY 0X+>C4-
+M%1,N 9 H VDT#A0@&G072Z P#! )A@\4$AF@H4 @$Q ! P4" 4(M!@\2( P/
+M!_ [#PXO#P8&(2XNK(U8( @%$@4G$R 4#R !# P@&0\5(! #+0<5&1,AE@0N
+ME@ ";B"6&+OX"PC&!YXR,#8QUFM79P"-8BZ-(="-A@+CR>6B)[VZ9,,$J0^G
+MD]C)//()F"@]V43ZHE*@>(0!N5@(F?\$E+VYKUB9 /]!/O?.&:[.20B1=^Y,
+M"P63C(6$AX6(KJ")B>C(L7K EM 23LD T >0#JAHJB!.!8WH!^Y Z@PURN";
+MB-#OS'30S[PG$7HMO"@%E"[ [W(!AJTSK^Y/!= #[E %Q@'JZNKF 6 QLAL8
+M+3DV.B $!04+ 1DO Q(%1*HK !@@(" .+Q Z$Q09# 66'P"I&\#J7] @J.5@
+M>*DT41N@A*+]($3A!WT@1@BB +UA")W<0>C0]ZE,C0T(J3>% 5BB'[V,A)TP
+;_>S&]TP1EX0\ACX_NH0> USE@*(^L3N1/<C0
+end
+/S02::$d000:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+                               Scrollies exposed :
+                      A look at simple scroll-text routines
+                                  by XmikeX,
+                      with contributions from Asger Alstrup
+The first 'effect' I tried to accomplish on the C-64 was a "simple" 1 by 1
+(one character wide, one character long :) scroll-text mover.  At first,
+even this task was a chore.  With the help of a few friends I was able to
+wring it out (thank you Paul G-S) and eventually come up with the source
+as listed below.  However, there was more room for improvement.  At the
+time, Mr. Asger Alstrup graciously volunteered the suggestions following
+the original code.  I would like to thank him for his insights in this
+matter.
+--
+!Simple 1*1 Scrolly - (C) 1994 XmikeX
+org $3000 - a fake op...tells the assembler where we want the code to start.
+            change this as you see fit, but keep it away from your text data.
+         lda #$00  -
+         sta $fd   - This is just so that we can do neato ind. index
+         lda #$32  - addressing later.. ie., we are setting up the
+         sta $fe   - spot where scrolly text will be pulled from !
+mainloop ldx #$c7  ; Prepare the scrolly register for a "hard right"
+bitloop  stx $d016 ; shove the "hard right" value into scrolly register
+         txa       ; Preserve X by shoving onto A
+         pha       ; and shove A into the stack (stack = temp storage)
+             ;(we need to clear X because we are going to use it in a delay
+             ;loop)
+             ;(if we don't introduce a delay, the text will scroll by
+             ; WAY TOO FAST to READ ! !   Incredible, this 1 Mhz bugger
+             ; machine of ours is, eh?) - delays not set in stone, play
+             ; with them :)  higher, lower, etc...
+         ldx #$05     ; just a delay loop - ldx counted down by dex
+waitloop ldy #$ff     ; a delay loop within a delay loop
+wl2      dey          ; decrement y in our delay looop
+         bne wl2      ; keep counting y down until y = 0
+         dex          ; decrement X in our top delay loop
+         bne waitloop ; repeat the y loop until x = 0
+         pla          ; grab X from the stack and shove it onto A
+         tax          ; copy A into X (X = #$c7 from mainloop)
+         dex          ; ok, now we countdown X
+         cpx #$bf     ; coarse scroll anyone?
+         bne bitloop  ; back to bit pushing
+         ldx #$00     ; clear X
+rt       lda $7c1,x   ; scroll the last screen line one char to the left
+         sta $7c0,x   ; we are shuffling one char into another
+         inx          ; increment X
+         cpx #$28     ; hex $28 = decimal 40 = width of VIC-II screen
+         bne rt       ; still in coarse scroll?
+         inc $fd      - here is where the indexing pays off, with
+         bne ty       - these little lines all we gotta do is stick
+         inc $fe      - our scrolly-text data beginning (in this case)
+ty       ldy #$00     - at location $3200
+         lda ($fd),y  - :))))
+         sta $7e7     - shove the data into rightmost corner
+         jmp mainloop - let it scrooooolll, baby! (end of loop)
+$3200 is 12800 in decimal I believe.  If I wanted to "on the fly" put
+some character data there, I would just poke it in.
+poke 12800,65 = a   at $3200
+poke 12801,66 = b   at $3201
+etc
+        etc
+                etc
+I like the code as it is, but I am looking for an even smoother method.
+Any suggestions?
+[...]
+Hello XmikeX,
+In regards to your scroll-text routine :
+>             ;(if we don't introduce a delay, the text will scroll by
+>             ; WAY TOO FAST to READ ! !   Incredible, this 1 Mhz bugger
+>             ; machine of ours is, eh?) - delays not set in stone, play
+>             ; with them :)  higher, lower, etc...
+>
+>         LDX #$05     ; just a delay loop - ldx counted down by dex
+>waitloop LDY #$FF     ; a delay loop within a delay loop
+>wl2      DEY          ; decrement y in our delay looop
+>         BNE wl2      ; keep counting y down until y = 0
+>         DEX          ; decrement x in our top delay loop
+>         BNE waitloop ; repeat the y loop until x = 0
+[even more snipped here]
+In the following, I'll describe *very* basic features like the
+concepts of rasters and frames. This is probably only interesting
+for newcomers in the assembly-domain.
+If you are looking for a smoother scroll, you would use what is commonly
+known as "rasters".
+Your tv-set displays the image on the screen using an electron-beam
+which moves from the top, left corner down towards the lower, right
+corner in horizontal lines. If my memory serves my right, PAL (mostly
+european) screens have 312 lines, while NTSC (in the USA) screens have
+lines. We count these lines starting from 0 (263 total), and call them
+"raster-lines", or just "rasters".
+The Commodore 64 has a few registers in the VIC (the chip that generates
+the video-image) which reflect where the electron-beam is. We have one
+register at adress $D012 which contains the first 8 bits of the raster,
+and another at adress $D011, where bit 7 describes the 9th bit of the
+rastervalue.
+You can safely regard the rasterline as a Y-coordinate on the screen
+that starts from above and works its way down.
+In this way, you can use this formula to obtain the rastervalue:
+  raster= peek(53266)+ (peek(53265) and 128) * 2;
+Note, that this isn't of much use in a basic-program because
+basic simply is too slow, and when the calculation is done,
+the rasterline has changed so much that the value of "raster"
+is more random than useful.
+Well, the value in $D012 goes from 0 to 255 while $D011 bit 7 is 0,
+refrecting that the rasterline goes from 0-255. Then bit 7 in $D011
+is set to 1, and $D012 goes from 0 to 55 on a PAL-system, refrecting
+that the rasterline is 256-311. This is what is know as a "frame",
+and the cycle starts over with $D012 being 0, and bit 7 in $D011 also
+being 0.
+You can exploit this register to get a smooth scroll in several ways.
+I'll describe the most primitive of these techniques in the following.
+A smooth scroll is achieved, if the text is moved every frame, not
+more, not less. In other words, the delay loop in the scroll should
+be adjusted so that the entire scroll-loop is performed exactly once
+per frame.
+Okay, that's fine, but how do I achieve this?
+You simply monitor the rasterline. A simple way of doing this is to
+use a bit of code like this, which waits until the rasterline is
+at position 0 exactly.
+wait    lda $d012       ;Wait until the lower bits of the rastervalue
+        cmp #0          ;is 0.
+        bne wait
+        lda $d011       ;We also need to check if the high bit of
+        and #$80        ;the rastervalue is 0, in order to distinguish
+        bne wait        ;raster 0 from raster 256.
+Another, slighty optimized version, could be:
+        lda #$ff
+wait    cmp $d012
+        bne wait
+which waits until the rasterline is $ff. This one exploits the fact
+that the rasterline never exceeds 311, so $d011 bit 7 will always
+be 0, when $d012 is >55.
+You should try to play around with such wait-loops, and with a little
+effort you should be able to do a smooth scroll.
+You can also try to use $d020 to set the border-color at different
+rasterlines, like:
+wait1   lda $d012       ;Wait for rasterline $30
+        cmp #$30
+        bne wait1
+        lda $d011
+        bmi wait1
+        lda #1          ;Set border-color to white
+        sta $d020
+wait2   lda $d012       ;Wait for rasterline $108
+        cmp #$08
+        bne wait2
+        lda #0          ;Set border-color to black
+        sta $d020
+        jmp wait1       ;And keep looping
+Notice that the second wait-loop exploits that the next
+time $d012 will be $08 after rasterline $30, will be
+at rasterline $108, which makes a check on $d011 unnecessary.
+This little program will produce a white stripe in the
+border of the screen, but the area where the color
+changes will probably "flicker" a bit, i.e. move randomly
+around in a small area.
+This is because we only check when the rasterLINE is right.
+Ideally, we would also want to check for the right "raster-
+coloumn" to be right, so that the cut could be at our specific
+(x,y) point, but unfortunately the c64 doesn't directly provide
+such a rastercolumn register, so removing the flicker can be tricky
+business.
+Of course there's much more to it than this. For instance, the
+VIC provides a facility to automatically announce to the program
+when a certain rasterline arives, so that we needn't check the
+rastervalue ourselves in a loop. This technique is known as raster-
+interrupts, but I'll leave that subject to another time.
+Until then, welcome to the world of rasters, and happy hacking!
+Asger Alstrup
+--
+For questions and comments, 'XmikeX' may be reached through the Editor-in-Chief
+of disC=overy.
+/S03::$d000:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+                           The Raster StarterKit,
+  -+-+-+-+-+-+  -+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+   +-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+-+  -+-+-+-+-+-+-
+                      A classic 'slice' of VIC-II code
+                       by XmikeX and Dokken/Electron
+  My early experiences with VIC-II programming on the C64 led me to the
+conclusion that being able to manipulate the VIC-II on a rasterline level
+is essential to success as a "coder".  Over the years, 64 coders have moved
+far beyond this simple dogma, but it is recognized that all have to start
+somewhere.  The following is an example of one of my early attempts.  I
+still use this bit of code to form the core of many of my programs.  I
+would like at this time to thank Dokken/Electron for his part in providing
+the base code that follows.  Please note that for the purposes of proper
+instruction to those who might be more familiar with BASIC than ML, the
+source below has all values in decimal (same as with BASIC peek/poke).
+However, please note that raster programming requires quick action and is
+best left to ML code.
+*=49152      ; origin at 49152 or whatever free memory location desired
+sei
+lda #127
+sta 56333
+lda #18      ; the first 3 STA's just tell the 64 to
+sta 53265    ; do IRQ's.  Well, the 53265 hi-byte value
+lda #1       ; says to do a IRQ at rasters 0-255, but
+sta 53274    ; whatever
+lda #100
+sta 53266    ; the IRQ'll happen at raster line 100
+lda #<main
+sta 788      ; low byte of IRQ routine
+lda #>main
+sta 789      ; high byte of IRQ routine
+cli
+jkjk
+jmp jkjk     ; this just happily jumps back to itself
+             ; whenever we're not in an IRQ
+main
+rol 53273    ; or: lda #1:sta 53273  tell the 64 an IRQ
+             ; happened or something goofy like that
+ldx #1
+jsr rast
+ldx #0
+jsr rast
+lda #126     ; this sets up a raster IRQ at scan line
+sta 53266    ; 126 for the 'rain' routine
+lda #<rain
+sta 788
+lda #>rain
+sta 789
+jmp $ea81    ; ok. you can use either $ea81 or $ea31
+             ; $ea31 with an RTS where the 'jmp jkjk'
+             ; is allows the 64 to process everything
+             ; normally.  ie.  you can run a basic
+             ; proggy and have an ML interrupt doing
+             ; something on top of it like maybe playing
+             ; a happy tune or something.
+             ; $ea81 gives you total control with no
+             ; overhead.  ($ea31 scans the keyboard
+             ; takes a decent chunk of time).  So with
+             ; $ea81, if you want to read the keyboard,
+             ; you get to do it explicitly.
+rain
+rol 53273
+ldx #6       ; rasterline is now set at color : blue!
+jsr rast
+ldx #0
+jsr rast
+lda #100     ; this sets up a raster IRQ at scan line
+sta 53266    ; 100 for the 'main' routine
+lda #<main
+sta 788
+lda #>main
+sta 789
+jmp $ea81
+rast      ; this routine just makes a raster bar out of
+lda 53266 ; the value in the x register.  Note that this
+rast2     ; only works for 7 of 8 scan lines cuz the
+cmp 53266 ; 64 needs to chunk away at graphix
+beq rast2
+stx 53280
+stx 53281
+rts
+Try and expand this routine to include many many rasters or color bars,
+or anything you dream up.  It would be prudent to point out at this time
+that a text such as "Mapping the 64" is extremely useful for delving into
+VIC-II chip registers.  "Mapping the 64" in particular, gives a wonderful
+description of VIC-II register function.
+Goodbye.
+--
+For more information or general commentary on this article, XmikeX may be
+reached through the Editor-in-Chief of disC=overy.
+/S04::$d000:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+           Heaven in the net, an unedited excerpt of IRC on #c-64
+                            by Mike Gordillo
+As a self-proclaimed "demo freak", the following transcript (largely unedited)
+represents one of the most interesting discussions concerning C-64 that I have
+ever witnessed on IRC (Internet Relay Chat).  I present this to the reader
+in the hopes of encouraging further participation and patronage of IRC channel
+#c-64.  We begin with a discussion on raster programming by "Fungus", "_dW",
+"hld", "Sorex of WOW", and "XmikeX".
+--
+<[Fungus]> I'd like to know just how to do that. Stable Raster that is. I've
+       tried double interrupts and stuff and every now and then I'd get like
+       this 1-2 cycle jitter I couldn't get rid of.
+<_dW> My raster is completely stable.. or so I think.
+<Sorex\WOW> fungus: use nops or something to time it out
+<[Fungus]> Sorex : I did and still couldn't get it out. The next routine's
+       timing kept changing the original timing.
+<_dW> Fungus: it works like this: set up a raster int on line 'n',
+       then in the irq code change the $0314-$0315 vector to point to a
+       different routine and set a raster to strike on line n+1.. execute
+       NOPs 'till it strikes. When the second raster hits, you'll be
+       at most 1 cycle off, which can then be corrected by code like
+       LDA # n+1 : CMP $d012 : BEQ sync (sync: rest of the code)
+<[Fungus]> I 've tried that too, and banking out The Kernal etc... Using fffe
+       & ffff.  I still got goofy jitter. It would be totally stable for like
+second then screw 1-2 cycles to the left exactly 3 times. Then would
+       be stable for another 5 secs. CIA's are Disabled as well as NMI's: NTSC.
+<_dW> Fungus: you must have left out something... what method did you use?
+<[Fungus]> Tried it both ways.
+<_dW> double ints and?
+<[Fungus]> Didn't matter, double Interupts VIA 0314 0315 Double Int VIA
+       FFFE FFFF too, and yes, all in NTSC R-8 VIC chip so 65 cycles.
+<Sorex\WOW> fun:i have a source here from Graham/Oxyron for that 4*4 display
+       routine, i uses multiple IRQ's to get the damn thing steady timed
+       and nops
+<_dW> Fungus: send me mail at agonzalez@nlaredo.globalpc.net   I'll send you
+       source code for a double int 0314/15 raster sync. Sorex: 4x4 display?
+<Sorex\WOW> dw:you know... that mode everyone uses to get fullscreen effect
+       like rotzoomers/plasmas/doomstuff/tunnels/...
+<_dW> Sorex: the one with the plasma in dawnfall/oxyron?
+<Sorex\WOW> dw:yeah, and the fire in 'The Masque' ....
+<[Fungus]> You guys wanna idea? Have any of you tried playing with $d012 like
+       decrementing it 1 cycle after it changes?
+<_dW> Fungus: that could cause an interrupt, if they're enabled and $d019 lsb
+       is clear.
+<XmikeX> If I could interject a simple question ->  Does the VIC-20 have a
+       $d012 equivalent?
+<hld> XmikeX - the vic20 has no $d012 equivalent - so you cant tell
+       what raster you are on.
+<[Fungus]> Hehehe On the contrary. I code stuff on the Vic-20 too. You can just
+       poll the raster register and SEI and never clear it. Makes it preety
+       easy. It's just that the Vic-20 treats 2 raster lines as one.  I made
+       a cool looking 16 color ROL scroller on it once.  (Basically, its $d012
+       equivalent does not generate IRQ's like $d012 does on the C-64).
+       I prefer to just poll $9004 ($d012) Easy to do. Then you can do
+       all sorts of twisted stuff. The VIC is a different Animal. Really
+       neat registers. Remove the borders with out an INT even!
+       I'd like to see people get interested in the Vic-20. It's capable
+       of some cool stuff. You can make the screen scroll in any direction
+       really Fast. The Entire screnn too -No borders. Full Charsets and
+       big color Memory. Full Screen High res too, no borders.=]
+[...]
+<_dW> hld: you did real raytracing in your 4k entry?
+<hld> dw - yup.. My 4k entry distorted a checker board. The code was about $4f0
+       bytes (and 20KB of tables ;)
+<_dW> Are you using lots of rom routines?  Any division?
+<hld> dw - It uses ROM routines to create the 20KB tables, but it is pure
+       integer assembly when running - with very small error rate.
+       I have no division at all in this tracer.. only +,*,srqt
+       Remember, pre-calcing all the sqrt's takes quite a while and it
+       is all pre-calced in floating point, but i do some nifty weird
+       things so that it only needs to accumulate integers to do the trace.
+       Basically, it does one frame in about 4 seconds where a frame is
+       defined as 256x64 monochrome.
+[...]
+<XmikeX> Wave, how is your plotter routine coming along?
+<Waveform> Right now, its "doing" 16*16 character rotation.  Going to optimize
+       it a bit and see how far out I can go and still have the routine update
+       reasonably fast, but my line vector is under 4k.
+<XmikeX> Any drags so far?
+<Waveform> The main thing that slows down the vector routine is the clearing
+       of the next buffer. Man, that EATS time... but a character or bitmap
+       rotation doesn't necessarily need to be cleared first, and even if it
+       does, the amount of zeros to stuff into memory is significantly less.
+<_dW> Wave: are you doing a complete clear? or a redraw-clear?
+<Waveform> Dw: complete zap of memory...but I toyed with re-draw clear idea.
+<MrX_TLO> Hmm, nothing really faster than inlined STA  :(
+<Waveform> Mr. X : I got a loop like this:
+       lda #$00
+       ldy #$00
+       sta $2000,y
+       sta $2080,y
+       sta $2100,y
+       ... <etc> ...
+       iny
+       bpl <loop>
+       Each STA line will zap 128 bytes in that loop... I may unroll it
+       further, but I don't know.
+<MrX_TLO> How about :
+       LDX #0
+       LDA #times/4
+       Sorry, LDY #0
+       STY ....,X
+       BNE
+       DEX
+<MrX_TLO> If you INX, you need a CMP or you waste time going over your area.
+<Waveform> ah... you are DEXing from times/4
+<MrX_TLO> 1 = 256, 2 = 512, 3=768, 4=1024; none of which is the 800 bytes
+       you mentioned.
+<Waveform> 2k of zeros; 2k=$800
+<MrX_TLO> You should still kill it by pages!
+<Waveform> It does kill by pages!
+<MrX_TLO> ?? It wasn't clear from the code. How many STA's inside loop?
+<Waveform> several
+<MrX_TLO> Define several?  It should be like 8 STA to kill 2K : base+0,
+       base+256, etc up to base+2K-255
+<Waveform> Here is my 'clear' code, Mr. X :
+       sta $2000,y
+       sta $2080,y
+       sta $2100,y
+       sta $2180,y
+       sta $2200,y
+       sta $2280,y
+       sta $2300,y
+       sta $2380,y
+       sta $2400,y
+       sta $2480,y
+       sta $2500,y
+       sta $2580,y
+       sta $2600,y
+       sta $2680,y
+       sta $2700,y
+       sta $2780,y
+       iny
+       bpl <loop>
+       rts
+       I cover the whole area in one loop, except I kill 128 bytes with
+       each STA.
+<MrX_TLO> Wave:  But that's way past the point of diminishing returns....
+       And why pick 128 bytes?
+<Waveform> Because it runs faster than 256 bytes!
+<MrX_TLO> So you got, what, 16 STA in your actual code?
+<Waveform> if each STA wipes 256 bytes, then the loop runs 256 times. Which
+       means that all the loop overhead (agreed - not too much, but there)
+       is multiplied by 256.  If you loop 128 times, I would think it should
+       reduce the overhead by half.
+<MrX_TLO> Have you actually done the math?
+<Waveform> I should time it tonight to be sure.
+<MrX_TLO> effective cycles  = loop + overhead / total cycles  <-- will give
+       an average number for overhead cost.
+<Waveform> Well ok, but heck if I'm going to 1:1 unroll it though!  2000 STAs,
+       no way...even if I write a program to generate them.
+<MrX_TLO> 4K for your clear routine!  hehe  :)  But 1:1 may lead you past the
+       point of diminishing returns...
+<Waveform> Well, I used 128 because there is only a INY (or DEY depending on
+       what you think when you code) and one branch. (BPL or BMI respectively).
+       BTW, 256 has the same functionality... Both will set a processor flag.
+       Hmmm, actually all numbers will with a DEY.
+<MrX_TLO> In general, I DEX BNE, just considering it a good habit, always trying
+       by pages.....
+<Waveform> But doesn't it stand to reason that a 1:1 is the fastest since it
+       has no overhead? So if thats true, if you only looped twice, you'd
+       cut out half the STA's, but increase the overhead by a factor or 2.
+       The overhead is small though (couple cycles for dey, couple for the
+       branch.)
+<MrX_TLO> Yeah, the overhead is small.  Your first STA is the "best", each
+       additional one after that gives less and less improvement in speed and
+       just takes more space....
+<Waveform> And if you need to zap like 2k of memory, there ain't a Bxx
+       instruction in 6510 thats going to get you back to the beginning of
+       that STA loop. =)  After all, you can only have 40 or 41 STA's to use
+       a Bxx instruction.
+<MrX_TLO> Time to unroll your loop, Waveform :).
+<Waveform> Then I'd get 6144 bytes of code to clear 2048 bytes of buffer. :(
+       I can't believe I am thinking of making a 6144 byte clear routine and
+       actually, it would have to be 12288 bytes, since I double buffer.
+       Three bytes per STA... 2048 bytes to clear... (2048 * 3 = 6144) * two
+       buffers doubles that to 12288.
+<Waveform> Hmmm...  Loop overhead... Let us see here...
+       Each time you gotta INY/DEY and CMP and/or Bxx (branch) or JMP
+       at the end of the loop, with the number of times through the loop
+       multiplying the overhead.  The less times through the loop, the less
+       overhead.
+<MrX_TLO> Yes, and DEX  BNE = 2 + 3 = 5  (assuming your smart enought to line
+       it up in one page! otherwise 6 cycles)
+<Waveform> Yeah, if I completely unroll it, I'll have NO loop overhead
+       to deal with at all...  I will certainly have to give this idea some
+       further thought.
+[...]
+<XmikeX> So, did you take MrX's advice?
+<Waveform> Yes, I unrolled that clear loop, but I'm not sure how much savings
+       I was able to obtain.  I mean I know how much in cycles, but I don't
+       see much of a real difference it made to the overall performance of
+       the code.
+<XmikeX> Well, there should be a difference.
+<Waveform> Yeah, but I'm not seeing THAT much of a diff... hmmm... but it was a
+       while inbetween running each version. I should run them one right after
+       another and see. So far, to tell the truth, the effect seems neglegible.
+<XmikeX> What are your cycle times now?
+<Waveform> 10752 for old code - 8192 for new code = 2560 cycles.
+       Hmmm, if I am doing my math right, then it is actually 2.5 ms.
+       Let's see, NTSC C64 draws a full screen every 1/60, and if one
+       raster line is 1/263 of 1/60 sec in NTSC, it takes approx. 0.0000636
+       seconds to draw one raster line, and there are 65 cycles per line.
+       This means one cycle is more or less .0000009 seconds which
+       is approx. NTSC 1Mhz rate.  My calculator lacks the required
+       precision here, but enough to give credence to the clock rate. :)
+       So if we forget about 'bad lines' (VIC-II DMA), I am saving
+       around 2.5 ms per iteration. My code rotates an object around
+       its center completely in 8-bit increments, hence the routine is
+       called 256 times.
+<XmikeX> So 256 * 2.5 ms = 640 ms per 1 complete rotation  (.640 sec! :)
+<Waveform> So I lose 12k of RAM for .640 sec..... NOT!  I will rip that code
+       out and instead work on speeding up my line drawing code.
+<XmikeX> Sigh...plotting...truth tables... blah :)
+<Waveform> Hehehe, 0  OR 1 = 1
+AND 1 = 0
+EOR 0 = 0
+EOR 1 = 1
+EOR 1 = 0
+       Etc., Etc., Etc...and remember, anytime you got that N in front
+       (NAND, NOR, NOT, etc) you just invert the truth table.
+<Elwix> Hey gang, wassup?
+<Waveform> Wix, right now I am looking at a balance of neatness in programming
+       vs speed of execution (plotter)
+<Elwix> the age old conflict... speed vs smoothness, how many cycles?
+<Waveform> Mine is 70 as it stands.
+<Elwix> wave - that's your theta,r plotter right?
+<Waveform> Yeah, and the plotter doesn't care where the coords come from, Wix.
+<Elwix> yeah, I know, a general point plotter... but where it plots points would
+       change the code a bit, no? the plotter takes r,theta and turns the right
+       pixel on in the chargrid right?
+<Waveform> I coded 3 general purpose routines:
+> point rotater (basically, change all the thetas)
+> Resolve r,theta into x,y
+> plot x,y on charmap
+<Elwix> ahhh... ok...  I thought you had said that there was no step 2
+       (conversion of r/theta into x/y) ??? the speed of the steps 1-2-3 are
+       combined at 76 cycles?
+<Waveform> no no no, I don't have inital x,y... no need to convert x,y into
+       polar just to rotate it and bring back.
+<Elwix> well I udnerstand you start from polar, but I was imagining you had a
+       direct r/theta to bitmap plotter...  that's all
+<Waveform> yeah... well I have to resolve into X,Y somewhere, Wix. =)
+<Elwix> ok, so your step 1-2-3 combined is 76 cycles?
+<Waveform> But the point of the routine is that I don't start in X,Y... Which
+       makes the Rotation part very fast... just inc/dec the thetas.
+<Waveform> And, no... just the plot into the char map is 70 cycles (as it
+       stands, I think I can get it down to below 60 though)
+<Elwix> but, yes, you do convert back to x/y to plot. That's your step 2 right?
+<Waveform> Wix, yeah.
+<Elwix> Wave well, you could do better on the x/y plotter.  But if what you
+       have works & looks good... who cares?  At the most I was able to
+       achieve 35 cycles onto a full screen bitmap coming from X & Y,
+       with an X high bit.  Think for a moment... :)
+<Waveform> Oh wait! I've just had a brainstorm. Be right back, getting a pen.
+<Waveform> DUDE!!!!!  Woah!!!!!  Just a sec... let me recount this.
+<Waveform> I -think- I have a 26 cycle plotter now.
+<Elwix> 26 should be possible in a right-made chargrid, but not on a bitmap
+       I think...
+<Waveform> Perhaps, but I will definately explore this!  In fact, once I'm
+       done, I think I'll put this all down in writing. :)
+[...end of transcript...]
+/S05::$d000:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+       A demo of 'disC=overy',      =
+                                  -+*+-
+                                    =       The exploration of rotation :)
+                        by John Kaiser (Waveform/MLM)
+Shoooom! Greetings from the Wave! =)
+In this article I am going to talk about a relatively simple two-
+dimensional vector routine. Before I dive in, however, I'd like to
+give some credit to Steven Judd, who through one of his C= Hacking
+articles showed me the way to the core of a fast line drawing routine
+as well as an amazing method of quick multiplication.  I'd also like to
+give thanks to those 'hard-core coding animals' on IRC channel #c-64
+for their most-nifty insight.  Before I forget, to all those who I have
+been taunting with my (I think, I hope..) 'super fast pixel plotter', you
+are finally able to see the source for it. Its so extremely simple, you'll
+probably kick yourself for not coming up with it yourself.
+[Ed. Note : According to S. Judd, the 'quick multiplication' method
+ which John is referring to was originally formulated by George Taylor.]
+For all of those expecting a full blown demo in this article, I am afraid
+I have to disappoint you. The "real world" has been taking a heavy toll on
+me during the last month so the amount of time I was able to spend working
+on this article was extremely limited. What you will see, however, is a
+fully functional rotating vector routine, in a relatively basic form.
+There are tons of uses for the routines involved, and infact, my next demo
+uses quite a few variations on the code you are about to see.
+It is interesting to note that I did not set out to code a rotating vector
+routine. =) I have another project I'm working on that involves some of
+the same routines. While working I thought, "Hey, I could probably rotate
+a two dimensional shape pretty easy with this."
+And Voila! You get something like the source code that follows.
+Preface To The Code
+-------------------
+The trick to this code is referencing the endpoints of a line by a radius
+and theta, as opposed to regular X and Y.
+The advantage to referencing the endpoints - or even just individual
+pixels - like this is that to rotate a point, you merely add or subtract
+from the theta value. This process ends up being extremely fast,
+especially when compared to taking an X,Y coordinate and sending it
+through a whole slew of mathematics just to move it around. Observe a
+quick comparison of the steps needed to rotate a number of endpoints about
+their geometric center:
+   Old Method:
+   -----------
+. Get an X,Y endpoint
+. Convert to radius and theta (or some other convenient rotation friendly
+      reference)
+. Apply the rotation
+. Convert back to X,Y
+. Store result
+. Loop back until all endpoints are finished
+   Nifty Method:
+   -------------
+. Get a radius,theta endpoint
+. Apply the rotation
+. Store result
+. Loop back until all endpoints are finished
+What is missing is the slow, and sometimes bulky conversion routines. Even
+if you have a fast conversion routine, this method still is faster because
+you have less steps from beginning to end. You have less code to execute
+per endpoint.
+One other trick to this particular code is that my circles have 256 units
+to them, while most peoples circles have 360 degrees. Rather than have a
+boring name like "units" I decided to use the name "byts". So, by way of
+comparison, a normal circle has 360 degrees, while my circles have 256
+byts.
+Why use a different unit of measurement? The thinking man will quickly
+realize that in our nifty 8bit machines, the largest value a single byte -
+register, or memory location - can hold is 255. By using the byt unit of
+measurement, we can make an entire circle with just one byte, and not have
+to worry about fiddling with high bits. This way of thinking saves many
+many processor cycles, and many many hairs on a coder's head. =)
+Finally, before I slam you with the source code (which, by the way, is in
+TurboAssembler format) there is one more trick to this particular code.
+Sometimes the only way to get real speed out of a Commodore is to reduce
+the code necessary to perform calculations. How do the great coders do
+that? The keyword(s) are LOOKUP TABLES.
+This code uses tables for the plot routine and for the multiplication
+routine. I wrote basic programs to create the tables and will do my best
+to explain how they work, near the end of this article. As to the tables
+themselves, I'll explain how the code uses them when I get to the relevant
+section of the source code.
+Wow, what a preface! Now, on to bigger and better things: The documented
+and commented Source Code!
+The Source Code - In TurboAssembler Format
+-----------------------------------------
+Okay, here it is. I'll be commenting on the code throughout the remainder
+of the article in hopes to further clarify what the code is doing.
+First, no code is complete without a little self glorification before the
+origin and equates are setup...
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+                    ;  A Demo of disC=overy - By: Waveform
+                    ;
+                    ;  (c) 1996 for disC=overy Magazine
+                    ;"The Journal of the Commodore Enthusiast"
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The afore mentioned origin and equates...
+                              *= $0820
+                    points     = $033c   ;number of points
+                    angleinc   = $033d   ;angle to increment
+                    curshape   = $033e   ;current shape
+                    theta      = $0340   ;thetas
+                    radiu      = $0350   ;radius
+                    itheta     = $0360   ;tab of init thetas
+                    iradiu     = $0370   ;       init radius
+                    scrloc     = 1196    ;location of top
+                                         ; left corner of
+                                         ; char matrix on
+                                         ; screen
+                    msin       = $3000   ;table of sines
+                    mcos       = $3100   ;         cosines
+                    msqr       = $3200   ;         squares
+                    lobyte     = $3300   ;lo bytes
+                    hibyte0    = $3380   ;hi bytes ($2000+)
+                    hibyte1    = $3400   ;         ($2800+)
+                    bitmask    = $3480   ;pixel bit mask
+Okay: "points" is the number of endpoints for the current displayed shape.
+      "angleinc" is the amount to rotate the shape, in byts.
+      "curshape" is the number of the current shape. This demonstration
+                 has three predefined shapes. Feel free to experiment
+                 with the ones I included or add your own!
+      "theta" is a table of thetas. This code is written such that a
+              shape can have up to 16 endpoints defined. To change this
+              "limitation" simply give yourself more bytes in-between
+              these tables.
+      "radiu" is a table of radii. Both "theta" and "radiu" change as the
+              program executes. At any point in time, these two tables
+              hold the current values of all the endpoints for the
+              current shape.
+      "itheta" is a table of the initial values of the shapes theta
+               coordinate component.
+      "iradiu" is a table of the initial values of the shapes radius
+               coordinate component. Both "itheta" and "iradiu" tables
+               are static and are not changed by the program. It is
+               convenient to have these two tables for when you need to
+               alter the coordinates of a endpoint relative to its
+               initial position.
+      "scrloc" is used by the routine that places the character matrix on
+               the screen. 1196 places it in the center of the screen.
+      "msin" is the base address of the table of sines. Each value
+             represents the sine of the address, relative to the base. So
+             that msin+0 = sine of 0 byts, msin+64 = sine of 64 byts, etc.
+      "mcos" is the base address of the table of cosines. Works the same
+             way as the sine table.
+      "msqr" is the base address for the table of squares. Works similar
+             to the sine and cosine table, except that this table is a
+             table of squares of both positive and negative numbers. More
+             on this later.
+      "lobyte" is the base address of a table of low bytes used by the
+               plot routine as the low byte of the address where the
+               pixel to be plotted lives.
+      "hibyte0" is the base address of a table of high bytes used by the
+                plot routine as the high byte in buffer #0 where the
+                pixel to be plotted lives.
+      "hibyte1" high byte of the address in buffer #1 where the pixel to
+                be plotted lives.
+      "bitmask" is the base address of a table of bit masks applied to
+                the byte where the pixel to be plotted lives.
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+                    jsr demoinit   ;init for demo
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+That's just a JSR to the demo initialization routine...
+                    main       lda #%11111110 ;scan matrix
+                               sta $dc00      ;
+                               lda $dc01      ;
+                               cmp #%11101111 ;f1
+                               beq keyf1
+                               cmp #%11011111 ;f3
+                               beq keyf3
+                               cmp #%10111111 ;f5
+                               beq keyf5
+                               cmp #%11110111 ;f7
+                               beq keyf7
+                               cmp #%11111101 ;return
+                               beq keyreturn
+                               lda #%01111111 ;scan matrix
+                               sta $dc00      ;
+                               lda $dc01      ;
+                               cmp #%11101111 ;space
+                               beq keyspace
+                               cmp #%01111111 ;return
+                               beq keystop
+What the above does is scan the keyboard matrix to see if the user has
+pressed one of the keys our program is looking for. Later on you'll see
+that we disabled the CIA interrupts that cause the computer to scan the
+keyboard, so we needed a way to tell if one of our "do-something" keys was
+pressed. We "scan" twice since the various keys we are looking for are on
+different rows of the keyboard matrix.
+                    reentry    jsr rotate     ;rotate shape
+                               jsr drawshape  ;draw shape
+                               jmp main       ;loop
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The little code snippet above is where the JSRs to the real workhorses
+are. As you can see this demo is pretty simple. =) We rotate the current
+shape, and then we draw the shape. Then we go back to the beginning and
+see if the user wants to do something.
+                    keyf1      jmp rotup
+                    keyf3      jmp rotdn
+                    keyf5      jmp expup
+                    keyf7      jmp expdn
+                    keyreturn  jmp newshape
+                    keyspace   jmp stoprot
+                    keystop    jmp stopdemo
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+Above is a little jump table to the various little routines that do what
+needs to be done when a key is pressed...
+                    rotup      inc angleinc   ;increase
+                               jmp reentry
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+                    rotdn      dec angleinc   ;decrease
+                               jmp reentry
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The above two "routines" change the value by which the shape rotates per
+run-though of the main loop. As you can see, referencing the endpoints as
+radius and theta takes alot of the work out of rotating a shape about its
+center! Each time the user presses the F1 key, the angle that the shape
+rotates per run-though increases. Holding down the F1 key will cause the
+shape to spin up quite rapidly. Indeed, if you continue to hold down the
+F1 key, the speed of the rotation will appear to increase to the point
+where it begins slowing down again.
+Obviously, F1 increases the angle of rotation, and F3 will decrease it.
+                    expup      ldy #$00
+                    expup1     lda radiu,y
+                               clc
+                               adc #$01       ;add one
+                               cmp #63        ;at maximum?
+                               bcc expup2
+                               lda #63
+                    expup2     sta radiu,y    ;store
+                               iny
+                               cpy points     ;do all points
+                               bne expup1
+                               jmp reentry    ;return
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+                    expdn      ldy #$00
+                    expdn1     lda radiu,y
+                               sec
+                               sbc #$01       ;subtract one
+                               cmp #2         ;at minimum?
+                               bcs expdn2
+                               lda #2
+                    expdn2     sta radiu,y    ;store
+                               iny
+                               cpy points     ;do all points
+                               bne expdn1
+                               jmp reentry    ;return
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+What the above two routines do is expand or shrink the shape. These two
+routines work well because of the way our shapes are defined. The shapes
+that come with this demo are all equidistant from the objects center. So,
+it is easy to change the shapes size by altering all of the shapes radius
+coordinate components. Obviously, more detailed shapes that have endpoints
+that are at varying radii from the center will need improved routines if
+the shape is to maintain its proportions through the expansion and
+shrinking.
+Notice the error checking, also. Bad things happen when are radii get too
+large or too small for our line drawing routine to handle properly.
+                    newshape   inc curshape
+                               lda curshape
+                               cmp #3         ;last shape?
+                               bne newshape1  ;nope
+                               lda #$00       ;select first
+                               sta curshape   ; shape
+                    newshape1  cmp #2         ;8 point star?
+                               bne newshape2
+                               jsr initobj20  ;init shape
+                               jmp reentry
+                    newshape2  cmp #1         ;2 triangles?
+                               bne newshape3
+                               jsr initobj10  ;init shape
+                               jmp reentry
+                    newshape3  jsr initobj00  ;1 triangle
+                               jmp reentry
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The above routine handles the users request to change the displayed shape.
+There are better ways to handle this, but since this demo only has three
+shapes built in to it, the quick and dirty way suffices without being
+extremely bulky.
+                    stoprot    lda #$00       ;stop all
+                               sta angleinc   ; rotation
+                               jmp reentry    ;
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The above little bit of code simply stops the rotation of the current
+shape. It merely stores a zero into "angleinc" which controls the amount
+of rotation applied to the shape.
+                    stopdemo   lda #$81       ;reset cia
+                               sta $dc0d      ; interrupts
+                               jmp $fe66      ;exit via
+                                              ; kernal warm
+                                              ; start
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The above code resets the CIA to its default setting so that when our demo
+exits back out to basic, the user is able to type something. =) It then
+exits via the Kernal warm start vector to reset other important things
+like the VIC chip. =)
+                    rotate     ldy #$00
+                    rotate1    lda theta,y    ;get theta
+                               clc
+                               adc angleinc   ;add amount
+                               sta theta,y    ;store theta
+                               iny
+                               cpy points     ;do all points
+                               bne rotate1
+                               rts
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+Okay, there it is. The code that actually rotates the shape. It takes the
+current value of the theta coordinate for each endpoint and adds the value
+of "angleinc" to it. Extremely simple and quite fast too. =) You can speed
+it up a bit by unrolling this loop, but for this demo, there aren't enough
+endpoints to work through to get that much of a savings.
+                    drawshape  ldy #$00       ;first point
+                               lda theta,y    ;pass theta &
+                               sta gxytheta   ; radius to
+                               lda radiu,y    ; getxy for
+                               sta gxyradius  ; conversion
+                               jsr getxy      ;
+                               lda xpos       ;convert polar
+                               clc            ; to
+                               adc #64        ; Cartesian
+                               sta x1         ;
+                               lda ypos       ;
+                               clc            ;
+                               adc #64        ;
+                               sta y1         ;
+The above code starts off the shape drawing routine. It gets the first
+endpoint prior to entering the loop below. The loop below joins endpoint
+to endpoint with a line.
+You will notice that we do actually convert from the radius,theta system
+to the X,Y system, finally. This is necessary because I haven't yet
+written a routine that will draw lines only from radius and theta. =) Also
+notice that it adds 64 to both the X and Y coordinate. This is to center
+the shape in our character matrix. The routine that converts from
+radius,theta to X,Y returns numbers ranging from -63 to +63, so adding 64
+also normalizes our coordinates to make them easier to plot in our
+character matrix. (It makes the range of possible values equal to 0 to
++127)
+                               ldy #$01       ;second point
+                    ds2        lda theta,y
+                               sta gxytheta
+                               lda radiu,y
+                               sta gxyradius
+                               jsr getxy
+                               lda xpos
+                               clc
+                               adc #64
+                               sta x2
+                               lda ypos
+                               clc
+                               adc #64
+                               sta y2
+                               sty dsy        ;preserve .y
+                               jsr drawline   ;draw a line
+                               ldy dsy        ;restore .y
+                               lda x2         ;make endpoint
+                               sta x1         ; of this line
+                               lda y2         ; start point
+                               sta y1         ; of next line
+                               iny            ;do all points
+                               cpy points     ;
+                               bne ds2        ;
+That's the routine that puts the shape on the screen. You may of noticed
+that each shape has one extra endpoint. For example, the triangle has four
+endpoints. This is to allow the shape drawing routine a place to end the
+last line. We of course, want to make the last endpoint equal to the first
+endpoint. This causes the routine to complete the shape.
+                               lda $d018      ;show our work
+                               eor #%00000010 ;
+                               sta $d018      ;
+Once we have finished drawing the shape in the buffer, we tell the VIC to
+display the buffer. This technique is known as double buffering. We
+display one buffer, while we do all our work in the other. When we are
+done with the work, we display that buffer, and do all our work in the
+first.
+A nifty trick in situations like these is to use the VIC to our advantage.
+Since we are using a character matrix to do our drawing in, we make both
+of our buffers in sequential character matrix slots in memory. Then to
+swap the displayed buffers, we merely toggle a bit in the VIC register
+that tells the VIC which matrix to display. =)
+A little confused? Well hopefully this will clear things up, at least a
+little. We start our program with the VIC pointing at buffer#0 which is at
+$2000. Bits 3,2,and 1 of $d018 control which address the VIC finds the
+character matrix. Here is a nifty table showing the addresses which
+correlate to those bits in $d018:
+   $d018     points to
+   -----     ---------
+   %xxxx000x $0000
+   %xxxx001x $0800
+   %xxxx010x $1000
+   %xxxx011x $1800
+   %xxxx100x $2000 -> This is our Buffer#0
+   %xxxx101x $2800 -> This is our Buffer#1
+   %xxxx110x $3000
+   %xxxx111x $3800
+You can see how we can make the VIC do all the work of displaying the
+right buffer. All we have to do is toggle bit 1 of $d018 to make the VIC
+switch between the character matrix at $2000 and the one at $2800.
+                               lda $d018      ;clear the
+                               and #%00000010 ; next buffer
+                               beq ds4        ; for drawing
+                               jsr blank0     ; in
+                               jmp ds5        ;
+                    ds4        jsr blank1     ;
+This code checks which buffer is currently being displayed and the JSRs to
+the routine to clear the OTHER one, in preparation for drawing in.
+                    ds5        rts
+                    dsy        .byte $00
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+Finish up... "dsy" is a temporary storage location.
+                    getxy      sty gxyy       ;preserve .y
+                               sta gxya       ;         .a
+                               ldy gxytheta   ;
+                               lda mcos,y     ;a
+                               sec            ;
+                               sbc gxyradius  ;-b
+                               tay            ;
+                               lda msqr,y     ;f(a-b)
+                               sta gxytemp    ;store result
+                               ldy gxytheta   ;
+                               lda mcos,y     ;a
+                               clc            ;
+                               adc gxyradius  ;+b
+                               tay            ;
+                               lda msqr,y     ;f(a+b)
+                               sec            ;
+                               sbc gxytemp    ;-f(a-b)
+                               sta xpos       ;=x coordinate
+Ah, now you get to see the fast multiplication in action. This routine is
+based heavily on the routine outlined by Steven Judd in C=Hacking. He has
+already documented fairly well how the table of squares work, so I'll not
+re-invent the wheel by explaining precisely how it works. What I will do
+is step you through the steps of what this code does.
+Okay, know that you can arrive at A*B with a function like:
+   f(A+B) - f(A-B) when f(x) = (x^2)/4.
+I created a table of squares such that the offset from the beginning of
+the table was the (x) in the f(x) above. For example, location $3300 + 0 =
+, since obviously (0^2)/4 is still 0. By the same token, $3300 + 9 = 20,
+since (9^2)/4 = 20.25.
+In our case, the radius component is the (A) and the (cos (theta))
+component is the (B). Those who didn't sleep through trigonometry class
+will recall that when converting from radius,theta into X,Y, your X
+coordinate is R * cos(theta). Hence, our A*B routine.
+Those that have read ahead, will note that I made some adjustments to the
+tables to the effect that the sin and cos tables are multiplied by 64, and
+that our table of squares is really the result of a function where f(x) =
+(x^2)/4*64. The reason for this is to maintain some level of accuracy in
+our tables. If you don't understand why this was done, I'll explain it
+further when I detail the basic programs that build our tables.
+                               ldy gxytheta   ;
+                               lda msin,y     ;a
+                               sec            ;
+                               sbc gxyradius  ;-b
+                               tay            ;
+                               lda msqr,y     ;f(a-b)
+                               sta gxytemp    ;store result
+                               ldy gxytheta   ;
+                               lda msin,y     ;a
+                               clc            ;
+                               adc gxyradius  ;+b
+                               tay            ;
+                               lda msqr,y     ;f(a+b)
+                               sec            ;
+                               sbc gxytemp    ;-f(a-b)
+                               sta ypos       ;=y coordinate
+                               ldy gxyy       ;restore .y
+                               lda gxya       ;restore .a
+                               rts
+                               ;----------------------------
+                    gxyradius  .byte $00
+                    gxytheta   .byte $00
+                    xpos       .byte $00
+                    ypos       .byte $00
+                    gxyy       .byte $00
+                    gxya       .byte $00
+                    gxytemp    .byte $00
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The code above does exactly the same thing the last piece of code did,
+except this time we were calculating the Y coordinate, and of course, to
+be trigonomically correct, our multiplication performs this equation:
+   Y = R * sin(theta).
+The labels at the end are for temporary storage of values during the
+multiplication routine.
+                    plot       pha            ;preserve .a
+                               lda $d018      ;plot in
+                               and #%00000010 ; correct
+                               bne plot2      ; buffer
+                    plot1      lda lobyte,x   ;lo byte
+                               sta $02        ;
+                               lda hibyte1,x  ;hi byte
+                               sta $03        ;
+                               lda ($02),y    ;
+                               ora bitmask,x  ;turn pixel on
+                               sta ($02),y    ;
+                               pla            ;restore .a
+                               rts
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+                    plot2      lda lobyte,x   ;lo byte
+                               sta $02        ;
+                               lda hibyte0,x  ;hi byte
+                               sta $03        ;
+                               lda ($02),y    ;
+                               ora bitmask,x  ;turn pixel on
+                               sta ($02),y    ;
+                               pla            ;restore .a
+                               rts
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+Shoooom! There it is! If you blinked you may of missed it. The plot
+routine is quite small, and its even smaller if your program doesn't need
+to decide which buffer it needs to plot in.
+In detail, first it checks which buffer we are working in and branches to
+the appropriate plot routine.
+How it works: the X register holds our X coordinate, and the Y register
+holds our Y coordinate. Both our X and Y registers hold a value between 0
+and 127. Knowing that, we can quickly and easily use some cleverly thought
+out planning ahead to make plotting a pixel super fast and very clean.
+Things we planned for ahead of time: We drew our character grid on the
+screen such that the addresses that define the character data are laid out
+to our advantage. Then we made a couple tables with data that makes it
+extremely simple to look up the address of the byte where we want to plot
+a pixel.
+Sound a little vague? I'll explain in greater detail when we get to the
+basic programs that set up the tables and also the little routine that
+lays out our character grid.
+First, it looks up an address based on our X coordinate. Each byte has 8
+pixels so, our table looks like this:
+   $3300 $00 $00 $00 $00 $00 $00 $00 $00
+   $3308 $80 $80 $80 $80 $80 $80 $80 $80
+   $3310 $00 $00 $00 $00 $00 $00 $00 $00
+   $3318 $80 $80 $80 $80 $80 $80 $80 $80
+     ...
+Notice that the values change every eight locations? Each byte has eight
+pixels. For example, imagine that the X coordinate is 0. We get the first
+(0th) byte from our low byte table and see its a zero. Its easy to see
+that we would always be plotting in the first (0th) byte until X is
+greater than 7 (i.e.: 8) in which case the value in our low byte table is
+$80. $80 is 128 bytes over from our first column of bytes, and holds the
+byte that has pixels 8-15 in it. If you are still confused, I will explain
+this further when we get to the routine that builds our character grid on
+the screen.
+Now that we have the low byte, we need a high byte. Again we look into a
+cleverly planned table using X as our index. The high byte table looks
+alot like the low byte table except that we change values every sixteen
+bytes. Take a look:
+   $3380 $20 $20 $20 $20 $20 $20 $20 $20
+   $3388 $20 $20 $20 $20 $20 $20 $20 $20
+   $3390 $21 #21 $21 $21 $21 $21 $21 $21
+   $3398 $21 #21 $21 $21 $21 $21 $21 $21
+     ...
+This is because each column only has 128 pixels in it. If the X coordinate
+is 0-7, then the byte that holds our pixel is at $2000. When the X
+coordinate is 8-15, the byte is at $2080. Only when X is 16-23 does our
+high byte change from $20 to, in this example, $21, since the bye we are
+looking for would be $2100.
+Now, we got an address based on the value of X. But what about Y? We
+aren't always going to be plotting in the first top row of pixels! Since
+we were clever in how we laid out our character grid, Y becomes an offset
+from our address. We figured our how far to go across in bytes from a
+table, but we don't need a table to figure out how far down to go. We
+simply address the byte using indexed addressing. =) So, for example if
+our Y coordinate was 5, the instruction LDA ($02),Y would get the 5th byte
+down from the byte we arrived at earlier.
+Nifty eh?
+After we get the byte, we need to turn on a pixel. This is where the
+bitmask table comes in. Our bitmask table looks like this:
+   $3480 $80 $40 $20 $10 $08 $04 $02 $01
+   $3488 $80 $40 $20 $10 $08 $04 $02 $01
+   $3490 $80 $40 $20 $10 $08 $04 $02 $01
+   $3498 $80 $40 $20 $10 $08 $04 $02 $01
+     ...
+It should be obvious how this table works. This table allows us to arrive
+at the right pixel to turn on (via ORA) when we plot. Notice that it
+repeats every eight bytes, and notice that there are eight pixels in a
+byte. =)
+                    drawline   sec            ;get dx
+                               lda x1         ;
+                               sbc x2         ;
+                               sta dx         ;
+                               sec            ;get dy
+                               lda y1         ;
+                               sbc y2         ;
+                               sta dy         ;
+                               clc            ;
+                               lda dx         ;
+                               bpl drawline2  ;handle -dx
+                               eor #%11111111 ;make dx
+                               adc #%00000001 ; positive
+                               sta dx         ;
+                               lda dy         ;
+                               bpl drawline1  ;handle -dy
+                               eor #%11111111 ;make dy
+                               adc #%00000001 ; positive
+                               sta dy         ;
+                               lda dx
+                               cmp dy
+                               bcs dl00
+                               jmp dl10
+                    drawline1  lda dx
+                               cmp dy
+                               bcs dl20
+                               jmp dl30
+                    drawline2  lda dy
+                               bpl drawline3
+                               eor #%11111111
+                               adc #%00000001
+                               sta dy
+                               lda dx
+                               cmp dy
+                               bcs drawline4   ;dl40
+                               jmp dl50
+                    drawline3  lda dx
+                               cmp dy
+                               bcs drawline5   ;dl50
+                               jmp dl70
+                    el         rts
+                    drawline4  jmp dl40
+                    drawline5  jmp dl60
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The above code determines the slope of the line to be drawn. This is the
+part of my code that I *know* in my gut I can improve on, but as of yet
+have been unable to. There are eight separate little routines below that
+draw a line. Each one is slightly different, they are written to handle
+each of the eight possible types of line slopes that can be encountered
+when drawing a line between two points.
+The values DX and DY are calculated such that DX=X2-X1, and DY=Y2-Y1.
+                    dl00       lda #$00        ;0 - dx
+                               sbc dx          ;
+                               ldx x1          ;plot first
+                               ldy y1          ; pixel
+                               jsr plot        ;
+                    dl00a      clc             ;step in x
+                               inx             ; positive
+                               adc dy          ; until time
+                               bcc dl00b       ; to take a
+                               iny             ; positive
+                               sbc dx          ; step in y
+                    dl00b      jsr plot        ;
+                               cpx x2          ;
+                               bne dl00a       ;
+                               rts
+                               ;----------------------------
+All eight of these routines are basically the same with only two real
+differences:
+) The value which is being stepped through until it's time to step the
+      other value.
+) The direction of the stepping
+Here is a step-by-step description of what the above does:
+. Subtract DX (change in X) from zero
+. Plot the first pixel
+. Step upwards in values of X, until it is time to take a step in Y
+. Plot the pixel
+. Loop back until we've reached the second endpoint
+Each of the following routines works exactly the same way.
+                    dl10       lda #$00
+                               sbc dy
+                               ldx x1
+                               ldy y1
+                               jsr plot
+                    dl10a      clc             ;step +y
+                               iny             ; until need
+                               adc dx          ; to +x
+                               bcc dl10b       ;
+                               inx             ;
+                               sbc dy          ;
+                    dl10b      jsr plot        ;
+                               cpy y2          ;
+                               bne dl10a       ;
+                               rts
+                              ;----------------------------
+                    dl20       lda #$00
+                               sbc dx
+                               ldx x1
+                               ldy y1
+                               jsr plot
+                    dl20a      clc             ;step +x
+                               inx             ; until need
+                               adc dy          ; to -y
+                               bcc dl20b       ;
+                               dey             ;
+                               sbc dx          ;
+                    dl20b      jsr plot        ;
+                               cpx x2          ;
+                               bne dl20a       ;
+                               rts
+                               ;----------------------------
+                    dl30       lda #$00
+                               sbc dy
+                               ldx x1
+                               ldy y1
+                               jsr plot
+                    dl30a      clc             ;step -y
+                               dey             ; until need
+                               adc dx          ; to +x
+                               bcc dl30b       ;
+                               inx             ;
+                               sbc dy          ;
+                    dl30b      jsr plot        ;
+                               cpy y2          ;
+                               bne dl30a       ;
+                               rts
+                               ;----------------------------
+                    dl40       lda #$00
+                               sbc dx
+                               ldx x1
+                               ldy y1
+                               jsr plot
+                    dl40a      clc             ;step -x
+                               dex             ; until need
+                               adc dy          ; to +y
+                               bcc dl40b       ;
+                               iny             ;
+                               sbc dx          ;
+                    dl40b      jsr plot        ;
+                               cpx x2          ;
+                               bne dl40a       ;
+                               rts
+                               ;----------------------------
+                    dl50       lda #$00
+                               sbc dy
+                               ldx x1
+                               ldy y1
+                               jsr plot
+                    dl50a      clc             ;step +y
+                               iny             ; until need
+                               adc dx          ; to -x
+                               bcc dl50b       ;
+                               dex             ;
+                               sbc dy          ;
+                    dl50b      jsr plot        ;
+                               cpy y2          ;
+                               bne dl50a       ;
+                               rts
+                               ;----------------------------
+                    dl60       lda #$00
+                               sbc dx
+                               ldx x1
+                               ldy y1
+                               jsr plot
+                    dl60a      clc             ;step -x
+                               dex             ; until need
+                               adc dy          ; to -y
+                               bcc dl60b       ;
+                               dey             ;
+                               sbc dx          ;
+                    dl60b      jsr plot        ;
+                               cpx x2          ;
+                               bne dl60a       ;
+                               rts
+                               ;----------------------------
+                    dl70       lda #$00
+                               sbc dy
+                               ldx x1
+                               ldy y1
+                               jsr plot
+                    dl70a      clc             ;step -y
+                               dey             ; until need
+                               adc dx          ; to -x
+                               bcc dl70b       ;
+                               dex             ;
+                               sbc dy          ;
+                    dl70b      jsr plot        ;
+                               cpy y2          ;
+                               bne dl70a       ;
+                               rts
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+                    x1         .byte $00
+                    y1         .byte $00
+                    x2         .byte $00
+                    y2         .byte $00
+                    dx         .byte $00
+                    dy         .byte $00
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The values above are temporary holding places for the values used and
+generated by the drawline routines.
+                    demoinit   lda #$06        ;dark blue
+                               sta $d020       ; background
+                               sta $d021       ; and border
+                               lda #147        ;clear screen
+                               jsr $ffd2       ;
+                               lda #$7f        ;disable cia
+                               sta $dc0d       ; time irqs
+                               jsr blank0      ;clear both
+                               jsr blank1      ; buffers
+                               lda #$00
+                               sta char
+                               ldy #$00        ;dirty way to
+                    demoinit4  lda #<scrloc    ; draw a
+                               sta $fa         ; character
+                               lda #>scrloc    ; matrix on
+                               sta $fb         ; the screen
+                               ldx #$00        ;
+                    demoinit5  lda char        ; the top
+                               sta ($fa),y     ; left corner
+                               inc char        ; is the
+                               lda $fa         ; value in
+                               clc             ; scrloc
+                               adc #40         ;
+                               sta $fa         ;
+                               bcc demoinit6   ;
+                               inc $fb         ;
+                    demoinit6  inx             ;
+                               cpx #16         ;
+                               bne demoinit5   ;
+                               iny             ;
+                               cpy #16         ;
+                               bne demoinit4   ;
+                               ldy #$00        ;fill color
+                               lda #$01        ; memory with
+                    demoinit10 sta $d800,y     ; white
+                               sta $d900,y     ;
+                               sta $da00,y     ;
+                               sta $db00,y     ;
+                               iny             ;
+                               bne demoinit10  ;
+                               lda $d018       ;point VIC to
+                               and #%11110000  ; first
+                               ora #%00001000  ; buffer
+                               sta $d018       ;
+                               jsr initobj00   ;1st shape
+                               lda #$00        ;init
+                               sta angleinc    ; variables
+                               sta curshape    ;
+                               rts
+                    char       .byte $00
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The above initialization routine sets everything up for the demo. In order
+of appearance, here is an explanation of what each part of this
+initialization does.
+. Turn the border and background dark blue.
+. Clear the screen
+. Disable the CIA timer IRQs
+. Clear both of the drawing buffers
+. Draw our character grid on the screen
+. Fill Color RAM with WHITE
+. Point the VIC to the first buffer (Buffer#0)
+. Initialize the first shape
+. Initialize the "angleinc" and "curshape" variables.
+Drawing the character grid on the screen could possibly of been done a
+little better. But as it says in the comments, its quick and dirty, but it
+does the job. =)
+Using our brains a bit, we draw the character grid on the screen in such a
+way that starting with zero (the @ sign) we place sequential characters on
+the screen in columns, 16 down, by 16 across. This enables us to use a
+very nifty and fast plotter as described above. Laying out our character
+grid in this manner, gives us 128 sequential bytes in the first column,
+sequential bytes in the second, and so on.
+You can make character grids of any size (up to 16*16) in this manner very
+easily. A smaller grid frees up characters to be used for other things,
+like say a niftycool border or other graphics to be used along side of the
+character grid where your vectors are being drawn. You just have to adjust
+your low byte and high byte tables accordingly.
+                    blank0     ldy #$00
+                               lda #$00
+                    blank0a    sta $2000,y
+                               sta $2080,y
+                               sta $2100,y
+                               sta $2180,y
+                               sta $2200,y
+                               sta $2280,y
+                               sta $2300,y
+                               sta $2380,y
+                               sta $2400,y
+                               sta $2480,y
+                               sta $2500,y
+                               sta $2580,y
+                               sta $2600,y
+                               sta $2680,y
+                               sta $2700,y
+                               sta $2780,y
+                               iny
+                               bpl blank0a
+                               rts
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+Clears the first buffer (buffer#0). Unfortunately, these clear routines
+are real cycle hogs. There just aren't many fast ways to zero out 4k of
+memory.
+                    blank1     ldy #$00
+                               lda #$00
+                    blank1a    sta $2800,y
+                               sta $2880,y
+                               sta $2900,y
+                               sta $2980,y
+                               sta $2a00,y
+                               sta $2a80,y
+                               sta $2b00,y
+                               sta $2b80,y
+                               sta $2c00,y
+                               sta $2c80,y
+                               sta $2d00,y
+                               sta $2d80,y
+                               sta $2e00,y
+                               sta $2e80,y
+                               sta $2f00,y
+                               sta $2f80,y
+                               iny
+                               bpl blank1a
+                               rts
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+The above clears the second buffer (buffer#1)...
+                    initobj00  lda #$04
+                               sta points
+                               ldy #$00
+                    initobj01  lda theta00,y
+                               sta itheta,y
+                               sta theta,y
+                               lda radiu00,y
+                               sta iradiu,y
+                               sta radiu,y
+                               iny
+                               cpy points
+                               bne initobj01
+                               rts
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+                    initobj10  lda #$05
+                               sta points
+                               ldy #$00
+                    initobj11  lda theta10,y
+                               sta itheta,y
+                               sta theta,y
+                               lda radiu10,y
+                               sta iradiu,y
+                               sta radiu,y
+                               iny
+                               cpy points
+                               bne initobj11
+                               rts
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+                    initobj20  lda #$09
+                               sta points
+                               ldy #$00
+                    initobj21  lda theta20,y
+                               sta itheta,y
+                               sta theta,y
+                               lda radiu20,y
+                               sta iradiu,y
+                               sta radiu,y
+                               iny
+                               cpy points
+                               bne initobj21
+                               rts
+                    ;---------------------------------------
+                    theta00    .byte 0,86,172,0
+                    radiu00    .byte 40,40,40,40
+                    theta10    .byte 0,64,192,128,0
+                    radiu10    .byte 40,40,40,40,40
+                    theta20    .byte 0,96,192,32,128
+                               .byte 224,64,160,0
+                    radiu20    .byte 40,40,40,40,40
+                               .byte 40,40,40,40
+The above short routines are the three that define the three shapes I
+included in this demo. The initialization for a shape is very simple. You
+store the number of endpoints in the "points" variable, and then copy the
+information from the appropriate table into the "theta" and "radiu"
+tables. I also copy the values into the "itheta" and "iradiu" tables in
+case there is a routine that needs to reference the initial values rather
+than the current values.
+Also note, that as mentioned before, the last end point is the same as the
+first endpoint. This closes off the shape by drawing a line back to the
+first endpoint.
+Well, there you have it! Documented source code for a demonstration of a
+different way to play with two-dimensional vectors. What follows are the
+basic programs used to create the data tables used by the above program,
+and of course, the uuencoded programs themselves.
+The BASIC Programs
+------------------
+The first program is the program which builds the sine, cosine and squares
+tables.
+rem -+-   make sin/cos/sqr 2.0   -+-
+rem -+-                          -+-
+rem -+-  by: waveform            -+-
+rem -+- for: disC=overy magazine -+-
+rem -+-  on: 09-14-96            -+-
+rem ::: make sin and cos tables :::
+ba=12288:bh=int(ba/256):bl=ba-bh*256
+"ba" is the starting address for the data created by this program.
+forby=0to255
+de=by*1.407:ra=de*(pi/180)
+s=int((sin(ra)*64)+.5)
+ifs<0thens=255-abs(s)+1
+c=int((cos(ra)*64)+.5)
+ifc<0thenc=255-abs(c)+1
+poke ba + by,s:poke ba + 256 + by,c
+next
+The above loop makes both the sine table and the cosine table. Also please
+note that in place of the word "pi" in line 16 above, you should instead
+use Commodore Basic's pi symbol.
+Step-by-step, the loop does this:
+. Convert from byts to degrees.
+. Convert from degrees to radians. This is necessary since Commodore's
+      Basic trigonomic functions work with radians.
+. Calculate the sine of the angle.
+. If the sine is less than 0 (i.e.. negative) adjust the number.
+. Calculate the cosine of the angle
+. If the cosine is negative, adjust the number.
+. Store both the sine and cosine in their tables.
+. Loop back until all 256 byts have been calculated and stored in a
+      table.
+When we calculate the sine or cosine of an angle, it becomes quickly
+evident that except when the result is 0 or 1, the result is always a
+decimal number. Our Commodores don't have a quick and easy way to store a
+decimal number, certainly not in one byte.
+Rather than mess with program code to deal with decimal numbers, we can
+resolve this issue rather quickly by some planning ahead here when we
+create our tables.
+If we take a decimal number, for instance .707107 (the sine of 45 degrees,
+or 32 byts) and multiply that number by a constant, in our case 64, we can
+arrive at a number which is much easier for our computers to store: 45.25.
+The fractional part of the number is chopped off when we store the value
+to memory, but what remains is a value that we can work with.
+Incidentally, we add the .5 to the value to reduce the rounding errors
+caused when the fractional portion of the number is chopped off.
+What is this about "adjusting" the number, anyway? Well, we know how to
+store a decimal number now, but what about a number that's negative?
+One of the nifty things about the math instructions on a Commodore is that
+they work the same for both unsigned and signed arithmetic. But to store a
+negative number you have to use twos compliment. To arrive at the twos
+compliment (negative) number, you flip all of the bits, and add one.
+Commodore basic doesn't have an EOR instruction, so we do the next best
+thing: subtract the number from 255. Subtracting a number from 255 has the
+same effect as EORing a number by %11111111, which would, of course, flip
+all of the bits. We then add one, and POOF, the twos complement of a
+number.
+The niftiness about twos compliment and signed values in assembly, is that
+it gives us a way to represent negative numbers. When you ADD or SBC with
+these numbers, the instructions work just as they did before, but the
+perform the task you'd expect by using a negative number.
+Steven Judd talks a bit about this in the same articles for C=Hacking that
+he wrote detailing how the table of squares works for fast multiplication.
+Also, you can read more about this in virtually any book or reference work
+that talks about the 65xx line of microprocessors.
+Having mentioned that, how do we arrive at the right answer later on if
+one of our values has been multiplied by a factor of 64? Read on...
+rem ::: make sqr table :::
+forby=0to127
+sq=(by*by)/(4*64)
+poke ba + 512 +by,sq:next
+forby=0to127
+sq=(by*by)/(4*64)
+poke ba + 512 +255-by,sq:next
+The above loop creates a table of squares. I did a little planning ahead
+as well, and realized that the table need only be 128 bytes long. Recall
+our niftycool formula for fast multiplication: f(a+b) - f(a-b) = a*b.
+When we do the first part of the formula (f(a+b)) you can see from how our
+program works that the radius is never larger than 64, and at the most,
+the value from our sine table will be is 64. Remember from trig class that
+sines and cosines range from 0 to 1. =) Since we multiplied our sine and
+cosine values by 64, the largest value we could ever get is 64.
+Well, you say, but since the values you pull from your sine and cosine
+table can be negative, what happens if the result of A+B or A-B is
+negative? The result of a squaring will always be positive, so we don't
+have to store any numbers using twos compliment, but we will end up with
+situations where the sum or the difference of A and B will be negative. We
+resolve this by building a second table of squares above the first, and we
+build it downward in memory.
+Hopefully, this example will clear up any confusion:
+If A (our radius) is 20, and the sine of our angle is -40, the sum of A
+and B is -20. The value in the register is 236, which means -20 in two
+complement. Since we built another table above the first 128 byte table of
+squares, we are free and clear. Our foresight put the correct value for
+f(-20) in that location.
+Now, there is one more issue to deal with. We multiplied all of our sines
+and cosines by a factor of 64. Somewhere we have to divide by 64 to keep
+the equation equal (and to not freak out my 7th grade algebra instructor)
+so we take a look at the function we have for f(x):
+   f(x)=(x^2)/4
+We realize we can do that *divide-by-64* thing here, to arrive at:
+   f(x)=(x^2)/4/64
+Or, written another way:
+   f(x)=(x^2)/4*64 which is also f(x)=(x^2)/128
+I left it as 4*64 in the program for clarity sake.
+rem ::: save to disk :::
+open1,8,15,"s0:sin/cos/sqr":close1
+open2,8,2,"sin/cos/sqr,p,w"
+print#2,chr$(bl)chr$(bh);
+fort=0to767
+print#2,chr$(peek(ba+t));
+next
+close2
+The above simply saves the table we created to disk, with a loading
+address of $3000. =) Just what the demo needs! =)
+Now, on to the second program...
+The second program is the program to build the low byte, high byte and
+bitmask tables.
+rem -+- make base/mask table 2.0 -+-
+rem -+-                          -+-
+rem -+-  by: waveform            -+-
+rem -+- for: disC=overy magazine -+-
+rem -+-  on: 09-14-96            -+-
+ba = 13056 : cb=8192
+"ba" is the starting address for the data created by this program.
+"cb" is the base address for the character matrix used by our demo.
+bh=int(ba/256):bl=ba-bh*256
+c=0:fort=0 to 15
+forq=0to7
+b1=cb+(t*128)
+hb=int(b1/256):lb=b1-hb*256
+poke ba + c,lb:poke ba + 128 + c,hb
+c=c+1:nextq,t
+The above loop creates the low byte table as well as the high byte table
+for the first buffer (buffer#0)
+c=0:fort=0 to 15
+forq=0to7
+b1=cb+2048+(t*128)
+hb=int(b1/256):lb=b1-hb*256
+poke ba +256 +c,hb
+c=c+1:nextq,t
+The above loop creates the high byte table for the second buffer
+(buffer#1)
+fort=0 to 15
+forq=0to7
+poke ba + 384+(t*8)+q,2 (7-q)
+nextq,t
+The above loop creates the bitmask table.
+open1,8,15,"s0:base/mask":close1
+open2,8,2,"base/mask,p,w"
+print#2,chr$(bl)chr$(bh);
+fort=0to511
+print#2,chr$(peek(ba+t));
+next
+close2
+Here we have a small routine to save the tables created by this program to
+disk, with a loading address of $3300.
+UUEncoded Files
+---------------
+Below you will find the uuencoded files detailed in this article. I
+included TurboAssmembler source, Object code (sys 2080 to run), both
+tables needed by the program to run, as well as the basic programs used to
+create them.
+I will make all of these available in a zip package on my web site:
+http://marie.az.com/~waveform
+How To Get The Demo To Run
+--------------------------
+There wasn't enough time to write a loader for this demo before the
+deadline, and even though my gracious host allowed me the opportunity to
+add one, it is really more trouble than its worth.
+So for those of you explorers who want to know how things are really
+done, here's a quick and simple method of launching this demo:
+   Step One:   load "sin_cos_sqr",8,1
+   Step Two:   load "base_mask",8,1
+   Step Three: load "disc-demo.obj",8,1
+   Step Four:  sys2080
+[Ed. Note : To prevent possible compatibility problems with unix file-handling,
+  the UUencoded files in this article will extract with filenames as seen
+  in the loading sequence above.  If you generate new tables with the basic
+  table generators, then the new tables will be named to their original
+  designations (i.e., sin/cos/sqr instead of sin_cos_sqr).  Please remember
+  to change filenames in your loading procedure to match.]
+Demo-Controls
+-------------
+F1 : increments angle (apparent speed)
+F3 : decrements angle
+F5 : expands shape
+F7 : shrinks shape
+<RETURN>   : changes shape
+<SPACE>    : resets to default size and angle
+<RUN/STOP> : quits the demo
+--
+For more information or general commentary on this article, Mr. John Kaiser
+(Waveform/MLM) may be reached at waveform@az.com
+Addenum by S. Judd, Technical Editor
+------+------^-------^------+-------
+John shrewdly omitted a few "tricks" in order for the code to flow more
+clearly as a learning experience.  Once the process is well-understood, a
+bit of sneaky optimization can be undertaken, as follows :
+[...]
+>                     ;---------------------------------------
+>                     expdn      ldy #$00
+>                     expdn1     lda radiu,y
+>                                sec
+>                                sbc #$01       ;subtract one
+>                                cmp #2         ;at minimum?
+>                                bcs expdn2
+>                                lda #2
+>                     expdn2     sta radiu,y    ;store
+>                                iny
+>                                cpy points     ;do all points
+>                                bne expdn1
+This can be written more efficiently, as follows :
+expdn   LDX POINTS      ;Start at top
+:L1     LDA RADIU,X
+        CMP #3
+        BCC :SKIP
+        DEC RADIU,X
+:SKIP   DEX
+        BPL :L1         ;Only allows 128 points though
+It is always better to start Y large and count downwards when you can.
+His loop takes 4+2+3+2+3/(2+2)+4+2+3 = 23/24 cycles per iteration, while
+the rewrite takes 4+2+3/(2+7)+2 = 11/17 cycles per iteration, and a few
+less bytes too.  Here it is not such a huge deal -- 6 cycles savings
+per loop for the one usually used -- but this kind of trick can sometimes
+lead to immense savings.
+[...]
+>                     rotate     ldy #$00
+In 'sneaky mode' we could start at Y points and go downwards here as well.
+>                     rotate1    lda theta,y    ;get theta
+>                                clc
+>                                adc angleinc   ;add amount
+>                                sta theta,y    ;store theta
+>                                iny
+>                                cpy points     ;do all points
+>                                bne rotate1
+>                                rts
+[...]
+>                     ;---------------------------------------
+>                     plot2      lda lobyte,x   ;lo byte
+>                                sta $02        ;
+>                                lda hibyte0,x  ;hi byte
+>                                sta $03        ;
+>
+>                                lda ($02),y    ;
+>                                ora bitmask,x  ;turn pixel on
+>                                sta ($02),y    ;
+>
+>                                pla            ;restore .a
+>                                rts
+>                     ;---------------------------------------
+Please note :
+- Using a JSR plot each time adds 12 cycles (JSR + RTS)
+- Most of the time you plot within the same byte.
+           That is, reloading $02/$03 each time is redundant by a
+           factor of 8 at the very least.  (The x-coordinate is
+           not going to change by more than 1 at each iteration!)
+Every cycle saved in a line drawing routine produces huge dividends.  If
+you have an object with just three lines in it, and each line has 100
+points in it, you suddenly start saving thousands of cycles, (i.e., using
+a JSR adds 3600 cycles immediately).  Those 14 cycles in loading the
+coordinate each time translates to many extra thousand cycles too.
+In raster time, we're talking well over half the screen here!
+In general, if it's in a loop, you can't optimize it enough :).
+Again, though, doing things this way makes things much clearer (which makes
+life easier on the programmer too).
+--
+begin 644 disc-demo.sou
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+M("`@("`@("`@0U!9(%!/24Y44PT@("`@("`@("`@($).12!)3DE43T)*,C$-
+M("`@("`@("`@("!25%,-.RTM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM
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+C+#0P#2`@("`@("`@("`@+D)95$4@-#`L-#`L-#`L-#`-#1HP
+`
+end
+begin 644 disc-demo.obj
+M(`@@A`NI_HT`W*T!W,GO\"G)W_`HR;_P)\GW\";)_?`EJ7^-`-RM`=S)[_`<
+MR7_P&R#F""#Y"$PC"$QM"$QS"$QY"$R3"$RM"$S6"$S>".X]`TQ/",X]`TQ/
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+M@""9`"&9@"&9`"*9@"*9`".9@".9`"29@"29`"69@"69`":9@":9`">9@"?(
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+MH``H*"@H*"@H*"@:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+`
+end
+begin 644 m.sin_cos_sqr
+M`0@H"`$`CR`M*RT@("!-04M%(%-)3B]#3U,O4U%2(#(N,"`@("TK+0!/"`(`
+MCR`M*RT@("`@("`@("`@("`@("`@("`@("`@("`@("TK+0!V"`,`CR`M*RT@
+M($)9.B!7059%1D]232`@("`@("`@("`@("TK+0"="`0`CR`M*RT@1D]2.B!$
+M25-#/4]615)9($U!1T%:24Y%("TK+0#$"`4`CR`M*RT@($]..B`P.2TQ-"TY
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+MJC$`N0D:`)<@0D$@JB!"62Q3.I<@0D$@JB`R-38@JB!"62Q#`+\)'`""`-P)
+M,@"/(#HZ.B!-04M%(%-14B!404),12`Z.CH`Z@DT`(%"6;(PI#$R-P``"C8`
+M4U&R*$)9K$)9*:TH-*PV-"D`&`HX`)<@0D$@JB`U,3(@JD)9+%-1.H(`)@H\
+M`(%"6;(PI#$R-P`\"CX`4U&R*$)9K$)9*:TH-*PV-"D`6`I``)<@0D$@JB`U
+M,3(@JC(U-:M"62Q343J"`',*9`"/(#HZ.B!3059%(%1/($1)4TL@.CHZ`),*
+M9@"?,2PX+#$U+")3,#I324XO0T]3+U-14B(ZH#$`L`IH`)\R+#@L,BPB4TE.
+M+T-/4R]345(L4"Q7(@##"FH`F#(LQRA"3"G'*$)(*3L`T`IL`(%4LC"D-S8W
+M`.,*;@"8,BS'*,(H0D&J5"DI.P#I"G``@@#P"G(`H#(````:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+#&AH:
+`
+end
+begin 644 m.base_mask
+M`0@H"`$`CR`M*RT@34%+12!"05-%+TU!4TL@5$%"3$4@,BXP("TK+0!/"`(`
+MCR`M*RT@("`@("`@("`@("`@("`@("`@("`@("`@("TK+0!V"`,`CR`M*RT@
+M($)9.B!7059%1D]232`@("`@("`@("`@("TK+0"="`0`CR`M*RT@1D]2.B!$
+M25-#/4]615)9($U!1T%:24Y%("TK+0#$"`4`CR`M*RT@($]..B`P.2TQ-"TY
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+M`$)(LK4H0D&M,C4V*3I"3+)"0:M"2*PR-38`#0ED`$.R,#J!5+(P(*0@,34`
+M&`EF`(%1LC"D-P`J"6@`0C&R0T*J*%2L,3(X*0!("6H`2$*RM2A",:TR-38I
+M.DQ"LD(QJTA"K#(U-@!J"6P`ER!"02"J($,L3$(ZER!"02"J(#$R.""J($,L
+M2$(`>0EN`$.R0ZHQ.H)1+%0`BPEX`$.R,#J!5+(P(*0@,34`E@EZ`(%1LC"D
+M-P"M"7P`0C&R0T*J,C`T.*HH5*PQ,C@I`,L)?@!(0K*U*$(QK3(U-BDZ3$*R
+M0C&K2$*L,C4V`-\)@`"7($)!(*HR-38@JD,L2$(`[@F"`$.R0ZHQ.H)1+%0`
+M_`F6`(%4LC`@I"`Q-0`'"I@`@5&R,*0W`"8*F@"7($)!(*H@,S@TJBA4K#@I
+MJE$L,JXH-ZM1*0`O"IP`@E$L5`!-"L@`GS$L."PQ-2PB4S`Z0D%312]-05-+
+M(CJ@,0!H"LH`GS(L."PR+")"05-%+TU!4TLL4"Q7(@!["LP`F#(LQRA"3"G'
+M*$)(*3L`B`K.`(%4LC"D-3$Q`)L*T`"8,BS'*,(H0D&J5"DI.P"A"M(`@@"H
+M"M0`H#(````:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+M&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+#&AH:
+`
+end
+begin 644 sin_cos_sqr
+M`#```@,%!@@)"PP.$!$3%!87&1H;'1X@(2(D)28G*2HK+"TN+S`Q,C,T-38W
+M.#@Y.CL[/#P]/3X^/C\_/T!`0$!`0$!`0$!`/S\_/CX^/3T\/#LZ.CDX.#<V
+M-30S,C$P+RXM+"LJ*2<F)2,B(1\>'1L:&!<5%!(1#PX,"PD(!@4#`0#^_?OZ
+M^/;U\_+P[^WLZNGGYN7CXN#?WMS;VMG7UM74T]+0S\[-S<S+RLG(Q\?&Q<7$
+MQ,/#PL+"P<'!P,#`P,#`P,#`P,'!P<'"PL+#P\3$Q<;&Q\C(R<K+S,W.S]#1
+MTM/4U=;8V=K;W=[?X>+CY>;HZ>OL[N_Q\O3U]_CZ_/W_0$!`0$!`/S\_/CX^
+M/3T\/#L[.CDX.#<V-30S,C$P+RXM+"LJ*2<F)20B(2`>'1L:&!<6%!,1$`X,
+M"PD(!@4#`@#^_?OZ^/?U\_+P[^WLZNGGYN7CXN#?WMS;VMG7UM74T]+1S\[-
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+MQ\C(R<K+S,W.S]#1TM/4U=;8V=K;W=[?X>+CY>;HZ>OL[N_Q\O3U]_CZ^_W_
+M``(#!08("@L-#A`1$Q06%QD:'!T>("$B)"4F*"DJ*RPM+C`Q,C,T-#4V-S@Y
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+M`@(#`P,#!`0$!`4%!04&!@8'!P<("`D)"0H*"@L+#`P-#0X.#P\0$!$1$A(3
+M$Q04%146%Q<8&1D:&AL<'!T>'A\@(2$B(R0D)28G)R@I*BLK+"TN+S`Q,3(S
+M-#4V-S@Y.CL\/3X_/SX]/#LZ.3@W-C4T,S(Q,3`O+BTL*RLJ*2@G)R8E)"0C
+M(B$A(!\>'AT<'!L:&AD9&!<7%A45%!03$Q(2$1$0$`\/#@X-#0P,"PL*"@H)
+M"0D("`<'!P8&!@4%!04$!`0$`P,#`P("`@("`0$!`0$!`0``````````````
+M```````:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+M&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+I&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+`
+end
+begin 644 base_mask
+M`#,``````````("`@("`@("```````````"`@("`@("`@```````````@("`
+M@("`@(```````````("`@("`@("```````````"`@("`@("`@```````````
+M@("`@("`@(```````````("`@("`@("```````````"`@("`@("`@"`@("`@
+M("`@("`@("`@("`A(2$A(2$A(2$A(2$A(2$A(B(B(B(B(B(B(B(B(B(B(B,C
+M(R,C(R,C(R,C(R,C(R,D)"0D)"0D)"0D)"0D)"0D)24E)24E)24E)24E)24E
+M)28F)B8F)B8F)B8F)B8F)B8G)R<G)R<G)R<G)R<G)R<G*"@H*"@H*"@H*"@H
+M*"@H*"DI*2DI*2DI*2DI*2DI*2DJ*BHJ*BHJ*BHJ*BHJ*BHJ*RLK*RLK*RLK
+M*RLK*RLK*RPL+"PL+"PL+"PL+"PL+"PM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+2TM+BXN+BXN
+M+BXN+BXN+BXN+B\O+R\O+R\O+R\O+R\O+R^`0"`0"`0"`8!`(!`(!`(!@$`@
+M$`@$`@&`0"`0"`0"`8!`(!`(!`(!@$`@$`@$`@&`0"`0"`0"`8!`(!`(!`(!
+M@$`@$`@$`@&`0"`0"`0"`8!`(!`(!`(!@$`@$`@$`@&`0"`0"`0"`8!`(!`(
+M!`(!@$`@$`@$`@&`0"`0"`0"`1H:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+M&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+M&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+*&AH:&AH:&AH:&AH:
+`
+end
+/S06::$d400:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+            SID Primer: The Working Man's Guide to SID
+            ----------
+                                   by
+               Stephen L. Judd
+                                       (sjudd@nwu.edu)
+        The Sound Interface Device (SID): it is one of the signature chips
+in the C64, but to this day a number of people still do not have a good
+understanding of SID -- the meaning of its registers, the idea behind how
+it generates sounds, etc. (I myself was in this category not so long ago).
+This article exists to rectify this situation once and for all with a general
+overview of the chip which everyone should be able to comprehend.  I have also
+included a program for experimenting with SID, which allows the user to change
+the various registers and see (not to mention hear!) the effect.
+        To use the program, just load it and run.  Use the cursor keys
+to move between the various settings, and use the +/- keys to change
+those settings.  To change certain settings, like frequency, by large
+amounts, you can press shift +/-.  Large jumps will work on any setting
+that takes up more than one byte.  Press 1, 2, or 3 to switch between
+the settings for voices 1, 2, and (guess!).  Certain settings, such
+as the waveforms, are simple toggles, and the space bar is used to toggle
+these on and off.  Finally, * will toggle the output of voice 3 on and off,
+although you need to press it very fast, as I only included it for the sake
+of completeness and did not debounce it or anything (all keys repeat).
+The upper left corner displays all of the (relevant) SID registers,
+so when you change a particular setting you will see the corresponding
+change in the appropriate SID registers.  Since SID is located at
+($D400), these values reflect the contents of SID+register number.
+The two registers in the lower right corner of the SID box show the current
+values of the voice 3 oscillator and envelope generator.  If you are feeling
+impatient, set the sustain to 15, select the triangle waveform, use shift+
+to get a reasonably large frequency, and set the gate bit, which turns the
+sound on.  Viola!  Violin!  SID!
+        SID is pretty straightforward.  There are a total of three voices.
+There are also three filters which the output of a voice may be run through.
+SID is also used to read the paddles (i.e. potentiometer settings).
+        All three voices have a number of features in common.  There
+are four possible waveforms which may be selected: triangle, sawtooth,
+pulse, and noise.  The waveform determines the basic "sound" of the
+sound.  Multiple waveforms may be selected on a voice, which results
+in a sort of mashing together of the waveforms, although noise should
+never be selected at the same time as the others.
+   The frequency of each voice runs from about 0 Hz to around
+Hz, with 65536 steps in-between.  Higher frequencies may be
+generated via ring modulation.  According to "Mapping the 64", the
+exact frequency may be calculated as :
+FREQUENCY = (REGISTER VALUE * CLOCK)/16777216 Hz
+where CLOCK=1022730 for NTSC systems and CLOCK=985250 for PAL systems.
+        One of the more important features of a SID voice is the ADSR
+envelope.  The ADSR Envelope is quite easy to understand.  Here is how to
+create an envelope using a stereo: first turn the volume all the way
+to zero (my volume goes to 11, so it takes me a while).  Now start
+turning it up to some level, say 5.  As soon as it hits 5, start going
+back down again, until it hits 2.  Let it sit at 2 until you get tired
+of sitting, and then turn it back down to zero.
+        ADSR stands of course for Attack Decay Sustain Release.  The
+first part, turning it up to 5, is the attack phase.  Changing the
+attack changes how quickly the volume goes to its maximum.  The
+second phase, turning down to 2, is the decay phase.  Again, changing
+the decay changes the rate at which the volume decays from the
+maximum volume to the sustain volume, which in this case is 2.
+Changing the sustain value changes this sustain level.  The sound
+will remain at this volume until the release phase is initiated.
+Changing the release value changes the rate at which the sound will
+decay to zero.
+        To start the attack phase, simply set the gate bit.  To
+start the release phase, clear the gate bit.  The program may be
+used to investigate the envelope, via the voice 3 envelope generator
+output register: select voice 3, and set the ADSR values to, say
+attack 14, decay 10, sustain 10, and release 8.  Set the gate bit,
+and the register will first increase, then decrese, then sit still,
+until the gate bit is cleared, at which point the sound will decay
+towards zero.
+        There are two more important features for each voice: ring
+modulation and synchronization.  Ring modulation produces nonharmonic
+overtones, i.e. gives it a bell-like or gong-like sound.  Synchronization
+combines two waveforms in a special way, and tends to amplify higher
+frequencies contained in the waveform.
+        These two features modulate the voice with the one "underneath"
+it; that is, Voice 1 is modulated by voice 3, voice 2 by voice 1, etc.
+Ring modulation can only be applied to the triangle waveform; that is,
+if ring modulation is selected for voice 1, then voice 1 must have
+the triangle waveform selected.  Using the program, start some note
+playing with voice 1, and select ring modulation.  Then go to voice 3
+and select a waveform and a frequency -- the ADSR settings may all be 0.
+There are also three filters available, which may be combined.  These are
+not separate filters for each voice, but rather one set of filters which
+voices may all run through.  Any sound generated by SID will contain a
+number of frequencies.  As you might expect, the filters will filter out
+frequencies in a special way.
+        To use the filters, the cutoff frequency must first be selected.
+All frequency components above or below this cutoff frequency will be
+reduced in volume -- the further away these frequencies are, the more they
+will be attenuated.  The low pass filters will let all frequencies below
+the cutoff through, and attenuate frequencies higher than the cutoff.
+The high pass filter does the opposite.  The bandpass filter attenuates
+frequencies on both sides of the cutoff.  When low and high filters are
+selected simultaneously, the result is called a notch filter.
+As an example, let's say we had a sawtooth wave playing at 100 Hz.
+This wave contains a number of higher harmonics, in particular
+harmonics at 200 Hz, 300 Hz, 400 Hz, 500 Hz, and so on.  If the low
+pass filter were selected, and the cutoff frequency was set at 380 Hz,
+the 200 Hz and 300 Hz frequencies would pass right through, but the 400 Hz
+Hz etc. frequencies would be attenuated, the 500 Hz harmonic being
+decreased more than the 400 Hz harmonic.
+        Resonance is a special feature which boosts frequencies near
+the cutoff frequency.  This creates a somewhat sharper filtering effect.
+The downside of the filters is that they vary quite a bit between
+different SID chips, so filtered sounds on one machine may sound quite
+different than the identical settings on another machine.  The game
+Beach-Head even allowed the user to change the filter settings, to try
+to compensate for this.  According to "Mapping the 64" the exact cutoff
+frequency is :
+FREQUENCY = (REGISTER VALUE * 5.8) + 30 Hz
+Note that the cutoff frequency is only 11 bits wide, i.e. has values
+from 0 to 2047.
+        One other setting is bit 7 of location 54286 ($D418), which
+disconnects the output of voice 3.  This lets voice 3 be used, in
+particular the envelope output register, without having to listen to it.
+The waveforms are the "shape" of the sound.  Sound is how two
+sensors on the side of your head interperet pressure variations in
+the air.  Speakers convert changes in voltage into pressure.  The
+waveform generators are what control this voltage.  Once again, the
+program may be used to get a feel for how the waveforms look, by
+using voice 3 and a very low frequency setting (like 1), and seeing
+the change in the waveform output register.
+        The first waveform is the Triangle wave.  This is SID's closest
+approximation to a pure sine wave.  It starts at some value, increases up
+to its maximum value, then decreases down to its minimum value, and
+so on.  Mathematically, this wave may be expressed as :
+sin(x) - sin(3x)/9 + sin(5x)/25 - sin(7x)/49 + ...
+so a triangle wave with fundamental frequency 100 Hz contains frequencies
+of 300 Hz, 500 Hz, 700 Hz, and so on.  Note that the amplitude of
+each harmonic decreases as the square of the frequency.
+        The second waveform is the Sawtooth.  This waveform increases up
+to its maximum, like the Triangle, but once it gets there it suddenly
+drops down to its minimum, so it is like half of a triangle.  This wave
+may be expressed as :
+sin(x) + sin(2x)/2 + sin(3x)/3 + sin(4x)/4 + ...
+As you can see it has a much higher harmonic content than the triangle
+wave -- more harmonics are present, and their amplitudes decrease less
+rapidly than the triangle wave (e.g. compare sin(3x)/3 with sin(3x)/9).
+        Next up is the Pulse, or Square, waveform.  The pulse waveform
+is either high or low.  With SID you can set how much of the time is
+spent high and how much is spent low.  The ratio of the time the signal
+is high to the time of a complete cycle is called the duty cycle.  A
+duty cycle of 1:2 is a special case called a square wave :
+sin(x) + sin(3x)/3 + sin(5x)/5 + ...
+The neat thing about pulse waves is that as the duty cycle is changed the
+harmonic content varies widely -- try using the program to change the
+pulse width and it will be obvious.  Pulse waves can have a very
+irregular energy distribution among the various harmonics; compare
+with a sawtooth, where the harmonics decrease smoothly.
+        The final waveform is the Noise waveform.  Noise is simply a
+randomly generated waveform; that is, random values are output through
+the waveform generator according to the frequency setting.  Obviously
+the result can't be written down as a harmonic expression like the above
+waveforms, but the frequency spectrum as a whole may be described.
+White Noise contains all frequencies in equal proportion.  SID generates
+what is known as Blue Noise: a minimum frequency is set and all frequencies
+above this minimum are generated with equal probability; thus SID noise
+is biased towards higher frequencies.
+        A few words about ring modulation and synchronization: ring
+modulation is a multiplication of two signals.  To see what happens,
+consider multiplying two sine waves together :
+sin(f1) * sin(f2) = sin(f1-f2+pi/2)/2 - sin(f1+f2+pi/2)/2
+where a handy trig identity is used.  The important thing to notice
+is that two new frequencies are generated, f1+f2 and f1-f2, with
+smaller amplitude and different phase.  Try ring modulating a wave
+at one frequency with another whose frequency differs by 1 or 2,
+using the program.  The result is two waves with fundamental frequencies
+slightly off from one another, which generates beats.  In short, though,
+using ring modulation creates a whole slew of new sum and difference
+harmonics, which gives a bell-like sound.  It should also be clear that
+frequencies higher than the maximum SID frequency setting may be
+generated in this way.
+        SID doesn't work quite this way, though.  That is, it does indeed
+generate all the sum and difference frequencies, but there is no waveform
+multiplication going on.  See the Yannes interview, elsewhere in this
+issue, for more information.
+        Synchronization synchronizes one voice to another.  That is,
+if voice 1 is synchronized to voice 3, the voice 1 waveform will "start
+over" according to the frequency of voice 3.  Adding a discontinuity
+like this has the effect of generating higher harmonics, and can change
+the pitch as well.  Imagine a triangle waveform, counting downwards,
+when suddenly the waveform is reset to zero and starts counting up again.
+The triangle is now starting to resemble a sawtooth, which, as was
+pointed out earlier, contains more high frequencies with larger
+amplitudes.
+        That then is a fairly complete summary of SID.  For more detail
+on the inner workings of SID see the interview with Bob Yannes, designer
+of the SID chip, elsewhere in this issue.  For information on programming
+SID, see just about any book on the Commodore 64.  Otherwise, have some
+fun playing with SID!
+begin 600 wave3.run
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+`
+end
+/S07::$d400:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+                         Progenitor of the SID :
+                      An interview with Bob Yannes
+                           by  Andreas Varga
+   This is an interview with the creator of the SID chip, namely Bob
+   Yannes, who after working for Commodore, co-founded the well-known
+   synthesizer company Ensoniq. In the latter part of the interview he
+   gives us a very detailed description of the SID's technology.
+   The interview was done via e-mail in August 1996 by Andreas Varga.
+   Some questions came from Linus Walleij.
+   [A note from your friendly technical editor: There is a little addendum
+   at the end of this interview, with a few comments to clarify or expand
+   upon some of the statements in the interview.  These comments are
+   referenced in the interview by a number in square brackets, like this: [3]
+   These comments are due in large part to a series of very helpful
+   conversations with Andreas Boose, Marko Makela, Michael Schwendt, and
+   Andreas Varga.  Special thanks to Andreas Boose for explaining how a
+   phase accumulating oscillator works :).
+   -TechEd]
+--
+>  Did you foresee that people would actually treat your little
+>  VLSI-chip like an instrument?
+   Actually, I was an electronic music hobbyist before I started
+   working for MOS Technology (one of Commodore's chip divisions at the
+   time) and before I knew anything at all about VLSI chip design. One of
+   the reasons I was hired was my knowledge of music synthesis was deemed
+   valuable for future MOS/Commodore products. When I designed the SID
+   chip, I was attempting to create a single-chip synthesizer voice which
+   hopefully would find it's way into polyphonic/polytimbral
+   synthesizers.
+>  Are you aware of the existence of programs like SIDPLAY,
+>  PlaySID,... which emulate the SID chip up to the smallest click ?
+   I only recently became aware of them (through your website).
+   I'm afraid I haven't thought much about SID in the last 15 years...I
+   am constantly amazed and gratified at the number of people who have
+   been positively affected by the SID chip and the Commodore 64 (which I
+   also designed) and who continue to do productive things with them
+   despite their "obsolescence".
+>  Have you heard the tunes by Rob Hubbard, Martin Galway, Tim
+>  Follin, Jeroen Tel, and all the other composers ?
+   I'm afraid not, are recordings available in the US?
+>  Did you believe this was possible to do with your chip?
+   Since I haven't heard them I'm not sure what we are talking
+   about, however, I did design the SID chip with enough resolution to
+   produce high-quality music. I was never able to refine the
+   Signal-to-noise ratio to the level I wanted, though.
+>  How much of the architecture in the SID inspired you when
+>  working with the Ensoniq synthesizers?
+   The SID chip was my first attempt at a phase-accumulating
+   oscillator, which is the heart of all wavetable synthesis systems.
+   Due to time constraints, the oscillators in SID were not multiplexed,
+   therefore they took up a lot of chip area, constraining the number of
+   voices I could fit on a chip. All ENSONIQ sound chips use a
+   multiplexed oscillator which allows us to produce at least 32 voices
+   per chip. Aside from that, little else of SID is to be found in our
+   designs, which more closely resemble the Mountain Computer sound card
+   for the Apple II (the basis of the Alpha Syntauri system). The DOC I
+   chip (used in the Mirage and ESQ-1) was modeled on this sound card.
+   Our current designs, which include waveform interpolation, digital
+   filters and digital effects are new designs that aren't really based
+   on anything other than our imaginations.
+>  How big impact do you think the SID had on the synthesizer
+>  industry?
+   Well, I don't think it had much impact on the synthesizer
+   industry. I remember once at Commodore that Sequential Circuits was
+   interested in buying the chip, but nothing ever came of it. My
+   intention in designing the chip (since MOS Technology was a merchant
+   semiconductor house at the time and sold chips to the outside world)
+   was to be able to sell the SID chip to synthesizer manufacturers. SID
+   chip production was completely consumed by the Commodore 64 and by the
+   time chips were readily available, I had left Commodore and never had
+   the opportunity to improve the fidelity of the chip.
+>  What would you have changed in the SIDs design, if you had a
+>  bigger budget from Commodore ?
+   The issue wasn't budget, it was development time and chip size
+   constraints. The design/prototype/debug/production schedule of the SID
+   chip, VIC II chip and Commodore 64 were incredibly tight (some would
+   say impossibly tight)--we did things faster than Commodore had ever
+   done before and were never able to repeat after! If I had had more
+   time, I would have developed a proper MOS op-amp which would have
+   eliminated the signal leakage which occurred when the volume of the
+   voice was supposed to be zero. This lead to poor signal-to-noise
+   ratio, although it could be dealt with by stopping the oscillator. It
+   would also have greatly improved the filter, particularly in achieving
+   high resonance. I originally planned to have an exponential look-up
+   table to provide a direct translation for the equal-tempered scale,
+   but it took up too much silicon and it was easy enough to do in
+   software anyway.
+>  The SID is very complex for its time. Why didn't you settle
+>  with an easier design ?
+   I thought the sound chips on the market (including those in
+   the Atari computers) were primitive and obviously had been designed
+   by people who knew nothing about music. As I said previously, I was
+   attempting to create a synthesizer chip which could be used in
+   professional synthesizers.
+>  Do you still own a C64 (or another SID-equipped computer) ?
+   Sure, I have a couple of them (including the portable), but I
+   honestly haven't turned them on in years.
+>  Did Commodore ever plan to build an improved successor to the SID?
+   I don't know. After I left I don't think there was anyone
+   there who knew enough about music synthesis to do much more than
+   improve the yield of the SID chip. I would have liked to have improved
+   the SID chip before we had to release to production, but I doubt it
+   would have made any difference to the success of the Commodore 64.
+>  Can you give us a short overview of the SIDs internal architecture ?
+   It's pretty brute-force, I didn't have time to be elegant.
+   Each "voice" consisted of an Oscillator, a Waveform Generator, a
+   Waveform Selector, a Waveform D/A converter, a Multiplying D/A
+   converter for amplitude control and an Envelope Generator for
+   modulation. The analog output of each voice could be sent through a
+   Multimode Analog Filter or bypass the filter and a final Multiplying
+   D/A converter provided overall manual volume control.
+   As I recall, the Oscillator is a 24-bit phase-accumulating design of
+   which the lower 16-bits are programmable for pitch control. [1] The output
+   of the accumulator goes directly to a D/A converter through a waveform
+   selector. Normally, the output of a phase-accumulating oscillator
+   would be used as an address into memory which contained a wavetable,
+   but SID had to be entirely self-contained and there was no room at all
+   for a wavetable on the chip.
+   The Sawtooth waveform was created by sending the upper 12-bits of the
+   accumulator to the 12-bit Waveform D/A.
+   The Triangle waveform was created by using the MSB of the accumulator
+   to invert the remaining upper 11 accumulator bits using EXOR gates.
+   These 11 bits were then left-shifted (throwing away the MSB) and sent
+   to the Waveform D/A (so the resolution of the triangle waveform was
+   half that of the sawtooth, but the amplitude and frequency were the
+   same).
+   The Pulse waveform was created by sending the upper 12-bits of the
+   accumulator to a 12-bit digital comparator. The output of the
+   comparator was either a one or a zero. This single output was then
+   sent to all 12 bits of the Waveform D/A.
+   The Noise waveform was created using a 23-bit pseudo-random sequence
+   generator (i.e., a shift register with specific outputs fed back to
+   the input through combinatorial logic). [2] The shift register was clocked
+   by one of the intermediate bits of the accumulator to keep the
+   frequency content of the noise waveform relatively the same as the
+   pitched waveforms. The upper 12-bits of the shift register were sent
+   to the Waveform D/A.
+   Since all of the waveforms were just digital bits, the Waveform
+   Selector consisted of multiplexers that selected which waveform bits
+   would be sent to the Waveform D/A. The multiplexers were single
+   transistors and did not provide a "lock-out", allowing combinations of
+   the waveforms to be selected. The combination was actually a logical
+   ANDing of the bits of each waveform, which produced unpredictable
+   results, so I didn't encourage this, especially since it could lock up
+   the pseudo-random sequence generator by filling it with zeroes. [3]
+   [Actually, the result isn't a logical ANDing at all. -TechEd]
+   The output of the Waveform D/A (which was an analog voltage at this
+   point) was fed into the reference input of an 8-bit multiplying D/A,
+   creating a DCA (digitally-controlled-amplifier). The digital control
+   word which modulated the amplitude of the waveform came from the
+   Envelope Generator.
+   The Envelope Generator was simply an 8-bit up/down counter which, when
+   triggered by the Gate bit, counted from 0 to 255 at the Attack rate,
+   from 255 down to the programmed Sustain value at the Decay rate,
+   remained at the Sustain value until the Gate bit was cleared then
+   counted down from the Sustain value to 0 at the Release rate.
+   A programmable frequency divider was used to set the various rates
+   (unfortunately I don't remember how many bits the divider was,
+   either 12 or 16 bits). A small look-up table translated the 16
+   register-programmable values to the appropriate number to load into
+   the frequency divider. Depending on what state the Envelope Generator
+   was in (i.e. ADS or R), the appropriate register would be selected and
+   that number would be translated and loaded into the divider. Obviously
+   it would have been better to have individual bit control of the
+   divider which would have provided great resolution for each rate,
+   however I did not have enough silicon area for a lot of register bits.
+   Using this approach, I was able to cram a wide range of rates into 4
+   bits, allowing the ADSR to be defined in two bytes instead of eight.
+   The actual numbers in the look-up table were arrived at subjectively
+   by setting up typical patches on a Sequential Circuits Pro-1 and
+   measuring the envelope times by ear (which is why the available rates
+   seem strange)!
+   In order to more closely model the exponential decay of sounds,
+   another look-up table on the output of the Envelope Generator would
+   sequentially divide the clock to the Envelope Generator by two at
+   specific counts in the Decay and Release cycles. This created a
+   piece-wise linear approximation of an exponential. I was particularly
+   happy how well this worked considering the simplicity of the
+   circuitry. The Attack, however, was linear, but this sounded fine.
+   A digital comparator was used for the Sustain function. The upper four
+   bits of the Up/Down counter were compared to the programmed Sustain
+   value and would stop the clock to the Envelope Generator when the
+   counter counted down to the Sustain value. This created 16 linearly
+   spaced sustain levels without havingto go through a look-up table
+   translation between the 4-bit register value and the 8-bit Envelope
+   Generator output. It also meant that sustain levels were adjustable in
+   steps of 16. Again, more register bits would have provided higher
+   resolution.
+   When the Gate bit was cleared, the clock would again be enabled,
+   allowing the counter to count down to zero. Like an analog envelope
+   generator, the SID Envelope Generator would track the Sustain level if
+   it was changed to a lower value during the Sustain portion of the
+   envelope, however, it would not count UP if the Sustain level were set
+   higher.
+   The 8-bit output of the Envelope Generator was then sent to the
+   Multiplying D/A converter to modulate the amplitude of the selected
+   Oscillator Waveform (to be technically accurate, actually the waveform
+   was modulating the output of the Envelope Generator, but the result is
+   the same).
+   Hard Sync was accomplished by clearing the accumulator of an
+   Oscillator based on the accumulator MSB of the previous oscillator. [4]
+   Ring Modulation was accomplished by substituting the accumulator MSB
+   of an oscillator in the EXOR function of the triangle waveform
+   generator with the accumulator MSB of the previous oscillator.  [5]
+   That is why the triangle waveform must be selected to use Ring Modulation.
+   The Filter was a classic multi-mode (state variable) VCF design. There
+   was no way to create a variable transconductance amplifier in our NMOS
+   process, so I simply used FETs as voltage-controlled resistors to
+   control the cutoff frequency. An 11-bit D/A converter generates the
+   control voltage for the FETs (it's actually a 12-bit D/A, but the LSB
+   had no audible affect so I disconnected it!).
+   Filter resonance was controlled by a 4-bit weighted resistor ladder.
+   Each bit would turn on one of the weighted resistors and allow a
+   portion of the output to feed back to the input. The state-variable
+   design provided simultaneous low-pass, band-pass and high-pass
+   outputs. Analog switches selected which combination of outputs were
+   sent to the final amplifier (a notch filter was created by enabling
+   both the high and low-pass outputs simultaneously).
+   The filter is the worst part of SID because I could not create
+   high-gain op-amps in NMOS, which were essential to a resonant filter.
+   In addition, the resistance of the FETs varied considerably with
+   processing, so different lots of SID chips had different cutoff
+   frequency characteristics. I knew it wouldn't work very well, but it
+   was better than nothing and I didn't have time to make it better.
+   Analog switches were also used to either route an Oscillator output
+   through or around the filter to the final amplifier. The final amp was
+   a 4-bit multiplying D/A converter which allowed the volume of the
+   output signal to be controlled. By stopping an Oscillator, it was
+   possible to apply a DC voltage to this D/A. Audio could then be
+   created by having the microprocessor write the Final Volume register
+   in real-time. Game programs often used this method to synthesize
+   speech or play "sampled" sounds.
+   An external audio input could also be mixed in at the final amp or
+   processed through the filter.
+   The Modulation registers were probably never used since they could
+   easily be simulated in software without having to give up a voice. For
+   novice programmers they provided a way to create vibrato or filter
+   sweeps without having to write much code (just read the value from the
+   modulation register and write it back to the frequency register).
+   These registers just give microprocessor access to the upper 8 bits of
+   the instantaneous value of the waveform and envelope of Voice 3. Since
+   you probably wouldn't want to hear the modulation source in the audio
+   output, an analog switch was provided to turn off the audio output of
+   Voice 3.
+>  Any other interesting tidbits or anecdotes ?
+   The funniest thing I remember was getting in a whole bunch of
+   C-64 video games which had been written in Japan. The Japanese are so
+   obsessed with technical specifications that they had written their
+   code according to a SID spec. sheet (which I had written before SID
+   prototypes even existed). Needless to say, the specs were not
+   accurate. Rather than correct the obvious errors in their code, they
+   produced games with out of tune sounds and filter settings that
+   produced only quiet, muffled sound at the output. As far as they were
+   concerned, it didn't matter that their code sounded all wrong, they
+   had written their code correctly according to the spec. and that was
+   all that mattered!
+--
+For questions or comments, Mr. Andreas Varga may be reached through his SID
+Homepage on the World Wide Web at - http://stud1.tuwien.ac.at/~e9426444/
+Addendum by S. Judd, Technical Editor
+------+-----+----------+-----+-------
+References / suggested reading:
+    "Design case history: the Commodore 64", Tekal S. Perry and Paul Wallich,
+        IEEE Specturm, March 1985
+    "Programming the Commodore 64", Raeto Colin West, Compute Publications.
+    "Mapping the Commodore 128", Otis Cowper, Compute Publications.
+    The SID Homepage, maintained by Andreas Varga:
+        http://stud1.tuwien.ac.at/~e9426444/
+    "SID Primer: The Working Man's Guide to SID"
+        by Stephen L. Judd, disC=overy issue 2 (Yep, this issue!)
+    "Mapping the Commodore 64", Sheldon Leemon, Compute Publications.
+    "Commodore 64/128 Programmer's Reference Guide", CBM.
+The first article makes for very interesting reading and should be available
+at most public libraries.  The second and third references have more detailed
+and accurate explanations of SID and the theory behind its general features,
+as well as actual implementation.  The SID homepage has lots of technical and
+general information.  The disC=overy article attempts to provide a general
+overview of the chip.  The last two are included as good references for
+information on programming SID, especially since they are easy to acquire.
+The program included with the disC=overy article (wave3) is useful for
+investigating the SID.  By selecting voice 3, and using a low freq. (e.g. a
+frequency setting of 1 or 2 say) the output of the waveform generator may be
+seen visually.  Ring Modulation, Synchronization, and multiple waveform
+selection may all be investigated in this manner.
+Notes:
+    [1] In the words of Andreas Boose:
+          "The phase accumulating oscillator is just a 24-bit accumulator
+           which is increased by the 16-bit value of the frequency register
+           every phi2 cycle.  And like Bob said, the upper 12 bits of this
+           accumulator are sent to the waveform generators.
+           Note that although he uses 12 bit, the resulting *resolution* of
+           this signal is only 12 bit on lower frequencies, if the frequency
+           register is smaller than 4096.  On higher frequencies the resolution
+           drops down to nearly 8-bit when the frequency register is at its
+           max value (65535)."
+        It should now be clear why all of SID's waveforms are linear in
+        nature (i.e. composed of straight lines): instead of using this
+        counter as an index into a wave table, only the counter itself
+        is used in generating the waveforms (and counting up is an awfully
+        linear process).  On the other hand, this raises the intriguing
+        possibility of modulating the waveform via rapid changes in the
+        frequency register.
+    [2] Asger Alstrup Nielsen has done a good deal of research into SID's
+        random number generator for generating the noise waveform.  I am
+        told that the algorithm was implemented by Michael Schwendt in
+        SIDplay and the result was not too accurate.  For more information,
+        visit the SID home page, in the references above.
+    [3] From the IEEE article referenced above:
+            The precise capabilities of the sound chip are not clear even
+        today, largely because of incorrect specifications having been written
+        when the chip was first designed.  "The spec. sheet got distributed
+        and copied and rewritten by various people until it made practically
+        no sense anymore," said Yannes.  An example of the faulty documentation
+        is the claim that the chip can logically AND several waveforms. ...
+        "There is no interlock to make sure that if one bit is on, the others
+        are off," Yannes said.  "That would  have taken too much silicon."
+        So if more than one waveform is selected, the internal nodes of the
+        output multiplexer are discharged, and what emerges is the minimum
+        of amplitudes."
+        The meaning of that last statement is unclear, as the result
+        is certainly not the minimum of the waveform values either.  A
+        very simple way to see what the result looks like is to use the "wave3"
+        program in the other disC=overy article with voice 3.  To test the
+        logical ANDing hypothesis, "freeze" the voice 3 pulse waveform
+        output at $FF by selecting pulse and a nonzero pulse width.  Select
+        a very low note frequency, 1 or 2 say.  When the waveform output
+        becomes $FF set the pulse width to zero: the pulse output is now
+        stuck at $FF.  Select another waveform, such as sawtooth, and watch
+        (and listen to) the result!  (To hear the result, make sure the sustain
+        level is set (to 15 say) and that the gate bit is set as well).  About
+        the only thing that can be said about multiple waveforms is that they
+        are periodic with the expected frequency.
+        In short, nobody really knows what the result is when multiple
+        waveforms are selected!
+    [4] It should be clear that synchronization generates a new waveform at
+        a fundamental frequency related to the preceding voice.  Moreover,
+        resetting the accumulator to zero will in general introduce
+        a discontinuity into the waveform.  Discontinuities will always
+        amplify the presence of high frequencies, as can be seen by
+        taking the Fourier transform of a discontinuous function.  Compare
+        for instance the triangle waveform, whose mode amplitudes decay
+        as 1/k^2, and the sawtooth waveform, whose mode amplitudes decay
+        as 1/k, where k is the wave number.  High frequencies are needed to
+        make sharp transitions.
+        Try synchronizing a triangle waveform -- if the synchronization
+        frequencies are very different, the result will unsurprisingly sound
+        like a sawtooth.  The higher frequencies are easy to hear; sometimes
+        even the fundamental pitch of the note will change significantly.
+    [5] Ring Modulation.  Most books, not to mention the other SID article
+        elsewhere in this issue of disC=overy, will explain ring modulation
+        as a multiplication of two waveforms, which generates sum and
+        difference frequencies.  Simply put, if one signal is cos(w1*t)
+        and another signal is cos(w2*t), then the ring modulated output is:
+            cos(w1*t) * cos(w2*t) = 1/2 (cos((w1+w2)*t) + cos((w1-w2)*t) )
+        Voila! Two new waves, with frequencies which are the sum and difference
+        of the two frequencies.  Note that if the two frequencies differ only
+        slightly, very noticable beats will result.
+        SID works a little differently.  What it does not do is to multiply
+        any waveforms.  What it does do is generate a new waveform, somewhat
+        related to the original waveform, which contains all the sum and
+        difference frequencies.
+        Recall that the triangle waveform may be written essentially as:
+                f(x) = { x,      MSB=0  i.e. 0 < x <= max/2
+                       { max-x,  MSB=1  i.e. max/2 < x < max
+        where max is the maximum value of the accumulator, 2^24.  f(x) then
+        counts upwards on one half of the cycle and downwards on the other
+        half.
+        Ring modulation uses the MSB of the preceeding voice to evaluate
+        the function above.  The normal triangle waveform is continuous,
+        since when x=max/2 the two pieces of the function have the same
+        value.  If MSB is suddenly changed, however, the function, which
+        was couting upwards, might suddenly change values significantly
+        and start counting downwards.  It is pretty simple to sketch out
+        the result on a piece of paper.  Consider the following:
+        V3: At some frequency a little higher than V1 (waveform doesn't matter)
+        V1: A triangle wave at some base frequency, modulated by V3.
+        Modulated output of V1:
+------------*-------*[--------------------------------- maximum value
+            [*     * [
+            [ *   *  [
+       *    [  *  [  [
+      * [   [   * [  [      *   etc.
+     *  [   [    *   [     *
+    *   [   [        [    *
+   *    *   [        [   *
+  *      *  [        [  *
+ *        * [        [ *
+*----------*[--------[*-------------------------------- minimum value
+        ^   ^     ^  ^
+        [   [     [  [
+        [   [     [  Curve hits FF and wraps around to 00
+        [   [     [
+        [   [     V3 completes a cycle; MSB is cleared; V1 wave counts up again
+        [   [
+        [   Curve hits FF and wraps around to 00; MSB is high so result
+        [   is 255-value (i.e. counting downwards)
+        [
+        V3 hits midway point in cycle; MSB is now high; V1 goes from t
+        to 255-t, goes downwards.
+        Well it's not really 0..255, but the meaning should be clear. :)
+        There are now two important features: first, a number of
+        discontinuities have been suddenly introduced, which tends
+        to amplify higher frequencies.  The second is that the
+        frequency of the resulting waveform is quite different than
+        that of the pure triangle.  What is the frequency?  To put it
+        another way, what is the period: how long must one wait before
+        the waveform repeats itself?
+        In terms of SID, let both of the accumulators start at zero, and let
+        one count up faster than the other.  The period of a given voice is
+        the amount of time it takes for its counter to return to zero.  At
+        some point both counters will return to zero, and of course the
+        modulated wave will then repeat.  This then gives the period of the
+        modulated waveform.
+        Let one wave have period T1 (frequency w1) and the other have period T3
+        (and frequency w3).  When m*T1 = n*T3, for some integers m and n, the
+        wave will repeat.  That is, perhaps after ten repetitions of wave 1 and
+        three repetitions of wave 3 the waves will both be at zero again.  The
+        resulting wave will then have frequencies w=(p*w1 + q*w3) for integer
+        p,q.  To see this, consider a wave like:
+                f(t) = e^i 2*pi (p*w1 + q*w3) t,  where w1=1/T1, w3=1/T3
+                let t = T = m*T1 = n*T3, then
+                f(T) = e^i 2*pi (p*m + q*n) = f(2*pi) = f(0)
+        Thus, such a wave has period T (although not necessarily least
+        period T), for *any* p,q integer.  This then implies that the resulting
+        waveform contains all of the sum and difference frequencies, e.g.
+        w1-w3, w1+w3, 2*w1+w3, etc.
+        Q.E.D.
+        In summary, SID's ring modulation produces a new waveform containing
+        sum and difference frequencies of the modulating waveforms, with
+        a strong high frequency content due to the discontinuities in the
+        resulting modulated waveform.
+        Note that by using ring modulation (not to mention sync) frequencies
+        much much higher than than the upper frequency limit (~4000 Hz) of the
+        frequency register may be generated.
+/S08::0100h:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+                      --- Z80, The basics of it ---
+                            by Raver/Phantasy
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Introduction
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ This article is a brief overview of the Z80 CPU processor.  Made by the people
+at the American company ZILOG. It was and still is a very popular CPU.  Used
+in many machines, from the early Cromenco's to the later Kaypro's and C128's,
+in 1996 it is a prime workhorse in many microcontroller operations.
+ The Z80 first saw action in a Commodore computer with the introduction of
+the CP/M cartridge for the C64.  Later, CBM introduced the C128 home computer,
+which has a built in Z80.  Both Z80 implementations are accurately regarded
+as half-done, limiting the processor in many ways.  Focusing on the short-
+comings however, would be the topic of another article.  Instead, I will
+concentrate here on the Z80 itself rather than on how it interacts with
+any given specific Commodore system or operating system protocol.  I hope
+this will be of sufficient value for further exploration on your particular
+system configuration.
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+The Z80 Registers.
+------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ AF - can be only used as two 8bit registers, but push on stack and change to
+alternative always both. "A" is 8bit accumulator, very useful register. Most
+of operations can be done with "A". "F" is flag register. There are "C", "Z",
+"P", "V" and "S" flags.
+ BC - 16bit register, can be used as two 8bit registers "B" and "C". It's
+usually used as "back counter".
+ DE - 16bit register, can be used as two 8bit registers "D" and "E". It's
+usually used as "destination index", as register, who points to address of
+destination.
+ HL - 16bit register, can be used as two 8bit registers "H" and "L". It's
+very special register, there are lots of commands available only for this
+register. It's sometimes called "16bit accumulator".
+ IX - 16bit register. It can be used as two 8bit registers "XL" and "XH" too,
+but it's undocumented feature. That register have one very useful addressing
+mode, but arn't widely used, cause it's slow (14-23 cycles).
+ IY - the same as "IX". The difference is two 8bit registers - "YL" and "YH"
+for this one.
+ SP - 16bit register. "Stack pointer", points to memory location, used as start
+of stack. Stack can be pointed to every memory location (#0000 - #FFFF).
+ I - 8bit register, which points to interrupt.
+ R - 8bit register for memory regenerating.
+ PC - 16bit register, "program counter", what points to address, where are next
+executing command.
+! Z80 has two independent sets of registers: "AF", "BC", "DE", "HL". They can
+  be changed by EXX registers "BC", "DE", "HL" to "BC'", "DE'", "HL'" and by
+  EX AF, AF' register "AF" to "AF'". Values of other register set will be saved.
+  Processor don't know, with which one of two sets it works now.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Commands: What moves numbers in registers and memory?
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ LD A,#04 - moves 4 into register "A"
+ LD HL,#4000 - moves 16384 into register "HL"
+ LD (#C000),A - moves value of register "A" into memory location 49152
+ LD (HL),B - moves value of register "B" into memory location pointed by "HL"
+ LD A,(HL) - moves value, which is held in memory location pointed by "HL",
+into register "A"
+ LD (IY+#03),A - moves value of register "A" into memory location, pointed by
+register "IY" +3. This addressing mode is only for "IX" and "IY".
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Commands: What moves blocks of bytes?
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ LDIR - very cool command, moves block of bytes pointed by "HL" to memory
+location pointed by "DE". The lenght of block is in "BC".
+ Example:
+                  LD HL,SOURCE
+                  LD DE,DESTINATION
+                  LD BC,LENGHT
+                  LDIR
+ It's fully automatic, but you can do it manualy by replacing LDIR with a
+lots of LDI - it's much faster! There is another block command LDDR, the
+difference is: LDIR moves blocks from start to end, LDDR moves them from end
+to start.
+ Also, there are commands for searching block of bytes in memory and commands
+to put in port block of bytes and take from port block of bytes.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+The Stack.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Stack is very useful on Z80. It's pointed by register "SP" and can be located
+anywhere you want, because "SP" is a 16bit reg!  (Note : In the 65xx series
+CPU, the SP (Stack Pointer) is merely an 8bit offset of page 1 ($01xx).  This
+is why the 65xx stack is limited to page 1).
+ Stack is used for commands like CALL, it pushes on stack return address, which
+is later used by an RET. The stack can be used as a very fast block-byte mover
+and buffer refresher, for example.
+ Commands for stack using are PUSH and POP. PUSH puts 16bit value of registers
+on stack and POP pops 16bit value from stack. Remember, the stack can be of
+any 16bit (0-65535) size and placed anywhere.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Interrupts.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+  Z80 has two interrupt modes - NMI and INT. NMI is a non-maskable interrupt
+and INT is maskable. NMI defines the main hardware interrupts and generally,
+they can not be used by coder. Fortunately, INT can be used by coder and
+register I holds value of interrupt vector. There is IM0, IM1 and IM2 mode of
+INT. Rather use have IM2 mode. Command to return from intrrupt routine on Z80
+is RETI.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+Port control.
+-------------------------------------------------------------------------------
+ The commands to control port are: OUT and IN. OUT writes value to port, but IN
+reads value from it. All controling of music processors, disk controller and
+RAM pages swithching is done by OUT. But some, for example to check, if key is
+pressed, you must use command IN. There can be following combinations of IN:
+ LD A,high value of port address
+ IN A,(low value of port address)
+or
+ LD BC,full 16bit port address
+ IN A,(C)
+and for OUT:
+ LD A,value to send to port
+ LD C,high value of port address
+ OUT (low value of port address),A
+or
+ LD A,value to send to port
+ LD BC,full 16bit port adress
+ OUT (C),A
+ There is more to the Z80 of course (Flags, etc.), but this should get you
+started.  Worthy texts on Z80 ML include works by Rodnay Zaks or Kathe
+Spracklen (co-author of Sargon chess).  These and a bit of hard gumption
+will yield great rewards with Z80, as with any human endeavour persued
+at length. :)
+Raver
+--
+For questions or comments on this article, Raver may be reached at the
+following internet address : raver@10mb.com
+:::::::::::d:i:s:C=:o:v:e:r:y:::::::::::::::::i:s:s:u:e::2::::::::::::::::::::
+\H01::::::::::::::::::::::::::H:A:R:D:W:A:R:E:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+                                Charger up!
+            The VIC-20 to ATARI 2600 'Ram Cartridge' Programmer
+             -----+-------+----------+----------+-------+-----
+                 by  Ravid Noam (nravid@newton.bgu.ac.il)
+A while back, I was searching the internet and found several hundred ROM
+images for the Atari 2600 video computer system.  I also found a couple of
+ways to transfer the images to the 2600, but none used a Commodore computer
+as a host.  Seeing that my own VIC-20 was equipped with sufficient hardware
+to become a host, I set about the task of devising a VIC-20 --> Atari 2600
+programming interface.  This article includes the instructions on how to
+build it.  Be warned that most of the wiring is in schematics (.gif format-
+-two of the .uue's at the end of this article) so you do need to have the
+ability to read and carry out a schematic.  In this text, I will attempt
+to outline some of the more salient points required to build the interface
+and thereby ease the process.  As with all hardware projects, you undertake
+this at your own risk.  Neither myself nor the staff of disC=overy is
+responsible for any use or misuse of the information presented in this
+article.
+--
+  What you need to own:
+   - Atari 2600 video game.
+   - Commodore Vic20 plus ram expansion of 8k or more. If you don't have 8k
+     expansion, read the notes about the basic program included in this
+     document.
+   - Commodore 1540/1541/1571 disk drive, or other model compatible with the
+     Vic20. A tape drive can be used instead, but you have to change the device
+     numb. from 8 to 1 in the basic program running on the Vic. The "8" appears
+     three times in the program.
+  What you have to build:
+      RAM CARTRIDGE
+      -------------
+ It's like a regular 2600 cartridge, but with the rom chip replaced by
+a 32k cmos ram chip, plus backup battery and some additional parts.
+The ram cart is plugged directly to the atari like a real cartridge.
+To load games to the ram, the cart has to be plugged to the main
+circuit. The ram cart can hold up to 16 games of 2k or 8 games of 4k
+length.
+<Note : Schematic for the ram cartridge is in CART.GIF>
+  Components description:
+  - U1 : ...62..256... - the name isn't important. Has to be a 32k by 8bit
+         static ram memory device, with access time lower than 200 nano-seconds
+         and low-power data retention ability, i.e. ability to remember the
+         data when the operating voltage is falling to 1.5V or lower. Most
+         CMOS chips have these capabilities. It has to come in the standard
+pin dual-in-line package.
+k static ram pinout diagram:
+             ________
+      A14  -|1     28|- Vcc           Vcc - operating voltage +5V,
+      A12  -|2     27|- R/W            or 1.5V in sdandby mode.
+      A7   -|3     26|- A13             _
+      A6   -|4     25|- A8            R/W - read/write select
+      A5   -|5     24|- A9             0 - write , 1- read
+      A4   -|6     23|- A11           __
+      A3   -|7     22|- OE            OE - Output Enable, active low
+      A2   -|8     21|- A10           __
+      A1   -|9     20|- CS            CS - Chip Select, active low
+      A0   -|10    19|- D7
+      D0   -|11    18|- D6            A0..A14 - adrress lines
+      D1   -|12    17|- D5
+      D2   -|13    16|- D4            D0..D7 - data lines
+    ground -|14    15|- D3
+             --------                 ground - common ground
+  - U2 : CMOS 4011 - quad two-input nand gate, 14 pin IC.
+       In this circuit and in the main circuit, it can be replaced by a CMOS
+       hex inverter or by NPN transistor + 2 resistors -- implementation for
+       each inverter. I used 4011 because I have many of this kind.
+  - Q1 : 2N2222. Can be replaced by any silicon NPN small signal
+         transistor with these ratings :
+         Vce(max) > 10V , Ic(max) > 30mA , Hfe(min) > 100 .
+  - D1 : 1N4001. Can be replaced by any similar rectifier diode.
+  - D2 : 1N4148 , or similar.
+  - C1 : 100 micro-farad , 10V, electrolithic capacitor.
+  - R1 : 22 kilo-ohm resistor .
+  - R2 : 10 kilo-ohm resistor .
+  - R3 : 500 kilo-ohm resistor .
+  - R4 : 50 kilo-ohm resistor .
+  All resistors are small power resistors. 0.125 Watt type should be big
+  enough.
+  - BAT1 : 3.6V Nickel-Cadmium rechargable battery. The same as the CMOS-RAM
+         backup battery inside the IBM-PCs. It can be soldered into a printed
+         circuit.
+  - S1...S5 : two-position switch.
+  - PCB edge connector : The ram cartridge has to be plugged to the Atari like
+      a regular cartridge, so it must end with double-side printed circuit
+      edge connector, with 24 contacts, 12 on each side, and with the same size
+      as of a regular cartridge edge connector.
+        The Connector can be an old atari cartridge as the PCB connector. Just
+      remove the rom chip and connect the old cart to the rest of the ram
+      cartridge circuit by wires. Using one or two flat-cables instead of 24
+      seperate wires will give a nicer look.
+        Another option is that the connector and the rest of the cartridge can
+      be on the same printed circuit. I know There are EPROM cartridges made
+      for the Atari2600, where instead of the rom they have socket for eprom
+      chip, plus the 4011 chip. The whole ram-cartridge can be built on this
+      platform, saving a lot of wiring work.
+    - >> Important notes << -
+. When using one of these options, remember to disconnect the ground
+          (contact 13) from the signal ground (contact 12), as the latter one
+          is the read/write control.
+. It is strongly advised that the ram cart is made in a way obtaining
+          only one possible way to plug in the cartridge, Otherwise, every time
+          you plug it to the atary or to the main circuit, you have to be
+          carefull not to plug it the wrong way, i.e. upside down - this can
+          cause permanent damage.
+    Edge-connector diagram :
+    (looking at the edge connectors of an atari cartridge, when the cartridge's
+    big label is up)
+    D3   D4   D5   D6   D7   A11  A10  A12  A9   A8  +5V   SGND   up side
+    2    3    4    5     6    7   8    9   10   11   12
+    ----------------------------------------------------------- printed circuit
+   14   15   16   17   18   19   20   21   22   23   24
+    GND  D2   D1   D0   A0   A1   A2   A3   A4   A5   A6   A7     down side
+  Functional description:
+  (you don't have to read this if the schematic is clear to you)
+  - CS inverter: the nand gate in the lower-right corner - invert the
+   active-high chip select signal from the atari to the standard low-active
+   signal used on memory chips.
+  - chip select protection: R3,R4,Q1 - lock the ram when the power is down, ie.
+    when Atari is off. R1 and the CS inverter also contribute to this task.
+  - R/W inverter: the upper nand gate. Like with the chip select, converts
+   active-high to active-low.
+  - back-up section : the battery BAT1 feeds the ram and the 4011 when the
+   external 5V is down. R2 recharges the battery when power is up, and pass on
+   the stand-by current from the battery when power is down. D2 and C1 improves
+   the power supply in transition times.
+  - s3,s4 and s5 : select one of the eight 4k blocks avilable.
+  - s1: 4k-mode / 2k-mode selection.
+  - s2: in 2k-mode - select which one of the 2k-blocks is used.
+  Notes:
+   Build the cart in a way you can hold it in your hands without touching the
+  metal parts. Shorting something with your fingers can lead to data lost.
+  If the circuit seems too complicated, there are some ways to simplify it:
+  - The rechargable battery. Can be replaced by a cheaper non-rechargable
+   battery, and the resistor R2 has to be removed, to prevent charging.
+   Remember that the 4011 chip must receive minimum 3V operating voltage, and
+   plus the voltage drop over D2, we get minimum voltage of 3.6 that the
+   battery must supply. Battery that consists of three 1.5V (=4.5) cells is
+   applicable, but isn't a common thing. In theory, a 3.0V or even 1.5V battery
+   can be used, since most of the cmos ram chips can retain their data under
+.5, 1.0 or even 0.7V stand-by operating voltage. If the problem is with the
+, it can be replaced. Each one of the two gates used in this circuit
+   can be replaced by a NPN transistor and two resistors, and this combination
+   should function under 1.0V or even 0.8V .
+  - The chip select protection circuit: Q1, R3 and R4. Before the 3.6V battery,
+   there was 2.4V battery. After some months, the cartridge became forgetful.
+   Then I added these parts, but the problem didn't get solved. Only when the
+   battery was replaced by the 3.6V one, the ram cart returned to function
+   properly. It's probably the 4011 which decided to demand the 3.0V.
+   Now, R3,R4 and Q1 seem useless, but I have decided not to remove them,
+   because the data retention issue is too sensitive from being economized.
+    If you want to check this, remove them and see if the ram cart still
+   function. The CS pin of the ram has then to be connected directly to the
+   output of the nand gate.
+  - s3,s4 and s5 : If you use standard pin-compatible 8k ram chip instead of
+   the 32k ram, you don't need s3 and s4. But then the cartridge can hold only
+   two 4k atari games or four 2k games. s5 can be replaced by shorting A12 of
+   the ram to ground or to +5V, but then the amount of data that can be stored
+   on the chip is divided by two.
+  - s1,s2 : After selecting the 4k bank by s3..s5, s1 is used to select between
+   two options: one 4k game or two 2k games. In 2k mode, s2 selects between the
+   two 2k banks. s1 and s2 can be omitted if you load the 2k games as 4k games-
+   you load a 4k file which it's last 2k half is a copy of the first 2k half.
+   In this case, the A11 pin of the ram should be connected directly to the A11
+   incoming signal from the atari.
+      THE MAIN CIRCUIT
+      ----------------
+  The task of the main circuit is to load games into the ram cartridge. Also,
+  it can read to save the content of a real cartridge. The circuit is connected
+  to the Vic20's user port.
+  <Note : Schematic for the main circuit is in MAIN.GIF>
+[Ed. Note : Assuming the VIC-20's user port is similar to the C64's user port,
+   then my guess is that this portion of the project could be adapted to the
+   C-64 with some minor hardware and software revisions.  Any takers? ]
+  Components description:
+  - U1,U2,U3 : CMOS 4094 - shift register, 16 pin IC.
+  - U4       : TTL 74LS165/74HCT165/74LSHCT165 - shift register, 16 pin IC.
+  - U5       : CMOS 4011 - quad two-input nand gate, 14 pin IC.
+  - Q2,Q4    : 2N2222. Can be replaced by any silicon NPN small signal
+               transistor with these ratings :
+                Vce(max) > 10V , Ic(max) > 30mA , Hfe(min) > 100 .
+  - Q1       : 2N2907. Can be replaced by any silicon PNP small signal
+               transistor with the ratings of Q2 and Q4.
+  - Q3       : 2N2905. Can be replaced by any silicon PNP transistor, with
+               these ratings :
+                Vce(max) > 10V , Ic(max) > 300mA , Hfe(min) > 50 ,
+                metal package (TO-3,TO-5 etc).
+  - LED      : any common small (2mm size) visible LED. The LED and its
+              resistor R9 are optional.
+  - R1,R2,R3,R6,R8 : 22 kilo-ohm resistor .
+  - R4,R7          : 1 kilo-ohm resistor.
+  - R5             : 220 kilo-ohm resistor.
+  - R9             : 5 kilo-ohm resistor.
+  All resistors are small power resistors. 0.125 Watt type should be big
+  enough.
+  -  Vic20 User Port interface : The user port in the Vic20 is a double-side
+    printed circuit edge connector, with 24 contacts, 12 on each side. The
+    interface is a female connector in the same size which can be plagged on
+    it, and contacted to the main board by 8 wires.
+     Be careful not to plug the interface to the Vic20 the wrong way,
+    i.e. replacing the top side with the bottom side. Such a mistake can
+    damage the VIA-6522 on your Vic20 or some parts in the external circuit.
+    Write "top" on the top side of the female connector or, if you have time,
+    you can shape two little plastic parts and insert them in the female
+    connector, against the two a-symetric slots in the user-port edge
+    connector. This will prevent you from doing such a dangerous mistake.
+  -  Atari2600 cartridge interface : exactly like the one in the Atari - a
+    female PCB connector with 24 contacts, 12 on each side. like in the case
+    of the VIC's user port, it is recomended to ensure that there is only one
+    way to plug in the ram cartridge or the regular atari2600 cartridge.
+      The easiest way to obtain this interface is to take it out of old Atari
+    video game cart. Then the interface can include its plastic housing which
+    eliminates the possibility to insert a cartridge the wrong way. You can use
+    the entire case of the atari cart. to hold the main circuit inside.
+  Functional description:
+  (you don't have to read this if the schematic is clear to you)
+  - U1, U2 and U3 : three 8 bit serial to parallel shift registers, which
+   spreads the serial signals from CB1 and CB2 to 20 bits word - 8 bit data out
+   + 12 bit adrress.
+  - U4 : converts the parallel data byte read from the cartridge to serial data
+   sent to CB2 under control of CB1.
+  - chip-select inverter - the lower nand gate inverts active-low chip select
+   signal from PB0 to active-high one needed for the Atari cart. Although PB0
+   is software programmable and can produce active-low signal, the default
+   position of it (i.e. after turning on the Vic20 or hitting RUN/STOP+RESTORE)
+   is high. Also this gate isolates the vic from the plugged card - you can
+   never know what you plug in, so this method of operation is prefered.
+  - Q4, R5 and R6 : Q4 and R5 enables U4 to send data to the serial line CB2
+   when PB7 is in read mode. Otherwise CB2 is used to send data to the 4094s.
+   R6 is pull-up resistor for data coming from U4.
+  - read/write inverter: the upper nand gate - similar to the chip select
+   inverter (default position,isolation).
+  - R7, R8: this voltage divider protects the nand gate from overload when PB7
+   is in write mode and a real cart is plugged. R8 is also pull-down resistor
+   for the read/write in the ram cart.
+  - power control: Q1, Q2, Q3, R1, R2, R3 and R4 amplifies the 0.2mA control
+   current from PB5 to the current consumed by the main circuit and the
+   cartridge.
+  Notes:
+  - The LED isn't necessary, but it helps you know when the main circuit is
+   turned off - when it's on, you are not allowed to plug in or out the
+   cartridge.
+  - The ground sign on the schematic doesn't mean physical grounding. It means
+   that everything ended with it is connected with each other. It can be really
+   grounded, but that depends on your Vic20's power supply.
+  - The 4011 can be replaced. See the notes about the 4011 in the ram
+    cartridge section of this document.
+  - The power control can, theoriticaly, be reduced to R1,R2 and Q3 only. The
+   base of Q3 is then connected to the hook up of R1 and R2, instead of the base
+   of Q1. But the current amplification of Q3 has to be high. We don't want to
+   overload PB5 and, Q3 has to be in its saturation area in order to output
+   more than 4.8V, under load currents of 50mA, 100mA and more.
+    If we don't chage R1, then I(PB5) = 0.2mA. The user port of the Vic20 is
+   permitted to supply up to 100mA. Thus Hfe(min)= 100/0.2 = 500. Too high. The
+   nominal active current of the main board and the ram cart is less than 50mA.
+   Now we get Hfe(min)= 250. Still can't be obtained from every 2N2905-type
+   transistor, according to the manofacturer data. But you can try it, it will
+   probably work. A darlington transistor isn't suitable because it will give
+.3V output, not enough for U4 and the memory chip on the cart.
+    One transistor can be saved if PB5 turns into active-high instead of
+   active-low. But then the circuit is automaticaly turned on when the VIA6522
+   in the Vic is being reseted.
+  The software part:
+   The program which controls the ram-cart loading and the cartridge saving
+  is a 3.5k Basic program, running on the Vic20. It uses 0.5k machine language
+  program.
+   The program files are:
+   - ATARI14/C  the basic program.
+   - ATARI MCP  the machine code program.
+[Ed. Note : The uuencoded versions of these files will extract with these
+   filenames.  If this is a problem for your host machine, please edit
+   the filename field in the uuencoded versions at the end of this article.
+   Please keep in mind that you should rename them (as seen above) on your
+   VIC-20's drive.  Such action will prevent potential load-chaining problems.]
+   The basic program is written for using a disk drive. If you have only tape,
+  change the "8" device number in the basic program to 1. It appears three
+  times: When loading games, when saving cartridge content and when loading the
+  machine code program.
+   Every time the program is runned, a checksum is made over the m.code program
+  in memory, and only if the checksum fails, the m.code program is reloaded.
+  Something i forgot - after reloading, the m.c. program isn't being checked-
+  so it's downloading from the PC has to be done carefully. To check it, load
+  first the machine code program with ",8,1" or ",1,1", type "NEW", and only
+  then load and run the basic program. If the m.c. program isn't reloaded, then
+  you know it had been downloaded properly.
+   If the ram expansion on the vic is non volatile, the mc. program will remain
+  in memory when the Vic is off. In the case of 16k+ ram expansion, the basic
+  start can be raised to $4000 and then the basic program becomes non volatile
+  too. In this case you have to change the memory settings in the program's
+  first lines.
+   The current memory configuration:
+    $1000  4096 - $11FF  4095  : screen bytes
+    $1200  4608 - $2DFF 11775  : basic program + variables
+    $2E00 11776 - $2FFF 12287  : machine language code
+    $3000 12288 - $3FFF 16383  : 4k game buffer
+   It's possible to cancel the 4k buffer by transferring data between the
+  disk and the cartridge byte by byte, and thus to compress the entire thing
+  to an unexpanded Vic20. But It's not simple and limits the program's ability
+  to grow up.
+  Operating instructions:
+    SAVING-CARTRIDGE CONTENT
+    ------------------------
+. The main circuit has to be plugged to the Vic20's user port, before the Vic
+  is turned on.
+. Run the basic program, if it is not already running.
+. Plug in the Atari2600 game cartridge.
+. From the main menu, select "copy 2k" / "copy 4k" with or without check.
+  Before selecting, check that the cartridge is plugged in. DON'T plug it
+  in or out when the vic is reading it. It is avdised to connect a LED
+  (+ its resistor) to the main circuit, to see when it is powered on. Only when
+  the power is off, the cartridge can be inserted or removed.
+. If you selected copy with check, the saved file will be reloaded & compared
+  with the cartridge content.
+. The cartridge content is now saved in a file. The format of the file is 2
+  bytes - low and high byte of the start adrress of the buffer, followed by the
+  content itself - 2048 or 4096 bytes.
+. Now you will be asked for continue. If yes, the procedure repeats itself in
+  the same copy-type selection.
+ Notes:
+  - 2k games can be saved as 4k games, by choosing "copy 4k" on the menu.
+   The 4k file following the start adrress will be a double image of a 2k game.
+  - The saving proccess can be done with no cart plugged in without damaging
+   anything. The saved file will be full of 255's ($FF).
+  - You can hit RUN/STOP + RESTORE anytime and the main circuit will be
+   turned off.
+    LOADING GAMES TO THE RAM CARTRIDGE
+    ----------------------------------
+. The main circuit has to be plugged to the Vic20's user port, before the Vic
+  is turned on.
+. Run the basic program, if it's not already running.
+. Insert the ram cartridge, if it isn't already plugged in. DON'T  plug it
+  in or out when the vic is writing to reading it. It is avdised to connect a
+  LED (+ its resistor) to the main circuit, to see when it is powered on. Only
+  when the power is off, the cartridge can be inserted or removed.
+. Select the desired switch combination on the ram-cart. Check that it is not
+  the combination of an already loaded game, which you don't want to be
+  overwritten.
+   If loading 4k game,move s1 to 4k mode.  For a 2k game, move s1 to 2k mode
+  and select (with s2) one of the 2k banks. s3, s4 and s5 selects between
+k banks, and gives 8 combinations.
+. From the main menu, select "load game". Type the name of the game and it
+  will be loaded. No disk browser at this stage.
+ Notes:
+  - When loading 2k games which have been saved as 4k games, move s1 to 4k
+   mode.
+  - The loading proccess can be done with no cart plugged in without damaging
+   anything.
+  - You can hit RUN/STOP + RESTORE anytime and the main circuit will be
+   turned off.
+begin 644 atari14/c
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+
+end
+\H02::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+            The 8 bit Modplay 128 Board, a three-diode addition
+                           by Nate Dannenberg
+Hello all, Nate Dannenberg here again, with an update to my original
+schematic and assembly instructions for the 8-bit DAC Circuit described
+in disC=overy issue #1.
+This change will require three 1N914 diodes, and some solder.
+What we will be doing here is rigging the DAC Circuit to trigger all four
+tracks simultaneously at the moment track 1 has been updated and clocked.
+The point of this is that, when used with my MODplayer software, all four
+tracks will output their samples at the same time, thus eliminating the
+switching and mixing noise that the circuit was producing before.
+Those who used this device for only 1 track output will probably not hear
+any improvement, but multitrack players will hear a significant reduction
+in the "ringing" sound that accompanies low sample rates.
+) Remove the jumper or wire that connect pins 7 and 8 of the MAX505
+   together, and move any ground from pin 8 over to pin 7 of the MAX505.
+   We want to take pin 8 completely out of the circuit.
+) Connect all three diode's ANODE leads to pin 8.  The Anode is the
+   "arrow" in the diode symbol, the end of the diode opposite the line on
+   the diode's case.
+) Connect one each of the diodes' Cathode leads to pins 17, 18 and 19 of
+   the MAX505, or to the corresponding pins on the User Port plug.
+That's it!
+Have fun and enjoy the wonders of 8 bit four track digital sound!
+--
+For questions or general commentary on this article, Mr. Dannenberg may be
+reached at the following addresses :
+Internet   : Bowes1@cris.com  or  Bowes2@cris.com
+Snail Mail : Digital Audio Concepts, Ltd
+             c/o Nate Dannenberg
+Northcliff Drive
+             Dallas, TX    75218
+Phone      : (214) 319-9879 data, or (214) 320-1386 voice
+\H03::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+                            The Virtual PLUS/4 :
+                     Upgrading your C16 to 64 Kilobytes!
+                             by Martin Gierich
+How many times have you heard from PLUS/4 fans, "Your C16 is only good
+as a PLUS/4 parts depot" ?  How many times have you been offerred money
+for your C16 by these same TED-chip-seeking adepts?  Disregard temptation
+because now your C16 can be turned into the pseudo-equivalent of a PLUS/4
+with the ability to run a great deal of PLUS/4 software.  You see, the
+C16 and PLUS/4 belong to the "264" series of Commodore machines.  The C16
+is actually a PLUS/4 with a few chips missing, notably the 6551 UART (and
+userport) and a full 64 KB of memory.  In this article, we will be upgrading
+a C16 to a full 64 KB, allowing us to run many PLUS/4 or "generic 264"
+software (minus userport-terminal programs and some assorted misc. software).
+:::Important:::
+   Before starting read this carefully and check out the schematics
+   in your C16 manual. You should be familiar with soldering. I have
+   reconstructed this, it is about 10 years since I have done this.
+   I can give you no warranty, do it on your own risk !  Neither myself
+   nor the staff of the disC=overy journal is responsible for any use or
+   misuse of information presented in this article.
+. Buy two 64x4 bit dynamic RAM chips like "TMS 4464" or "41464".
+   They should cost less than US$10 together.
+. Remove your two old "TMS 4416" RAM chips from your C16. They are
+   labelled U5 and U6. You might destroy them, but be careful to not
+   destroy something else ! I have used scissors to cut the pins and
+   then I have desoldered the pins.
+. Now solder two 18 pin sockets in where the old RAM chips have been.
+   Again do it carefully to avoid destruction ! Check out where pin 1
+   is. Then plug in the new RAM chips.
+. Check everything again, then switch on your C16. It should still
+   show "12KB free".
+. Adress lines A0 to A13 are connected to the multiplexers U7 and U8.
+   You need to connect A14 and A15 to them instead of +5V at U7 pin 2
+   and U8 pin 14 (but the +5V connections at pin 16 must be left).
+   For example get them from the CPU (U2) pin 21 and 22. First scratch
+   the +5V connections. U8 pin 14 is connceted on the lower side only
+   and should be easy to disconnect. U7 pin 2 is more tricky.
+   Disconnect the line between pin 2 and pin 16 at pin 16 on the upper
+   side (U7). Pin 16 still gets +5V from the lower side.
+Now you have two choices:
+a. To always have 64KB:
+   Connect U7 pin 2 with U2 pin 21 (A14).
+   Connect U8 pin 14 with U2 pin 22 (A15).
+b. To choose between 16KB and 64KB:
+   You need a double switch (or whatever this is called, it has 6
+   pins). Connect U7 pin 2 and U8 pin 14 to the two middle pins of
+   the switch. Connect U2 pin 21 and 22 to the two upper pins of
+   the switch. Connect +5V or Ground to the two lower pins of the
+   switch. With that you can chosse where your 16KB area is located
+   in your 64KB area. I have used FB13 to get Ground and FB14 to get
+   +5V.
+Keep the connections short !
+. Check everything again carefully. Then switch on your C16. It
+   should show "60KB free" if the switch is in right position.
+. It is a good idea to replace the 7805 (labelled VR1) with a 78S05,
+   because the 78S05 switches itself off, if it gets too hot.
+Simple, eh?  Enjoy !
+--
+For questions or general commentary on this article, Mr. Martin Gierich may
+be reached at the following internet address : uj3w@rz.uni-karlsruhe.de
+\H04::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+                    Continued Lt. Kernal Hard Drive Support
+                                 by Ron Fick
+             (rfick@nyx.net or Caped Crusader @ Batcave on CommNet)
+  Probably my best enjoyment from this great Commodore 8 bit hobby is helping
+fellow Commodore enthusiasts with my expertise on electronic hardware.  I
+have been an electronics design engineer for 20 some years and I have an
+in all types of computers, but the Commodore has always been my favorite
+for hardware/software work ever since I bought my first C64.
+  One peripheral lacking on Commodore 64's and 128's was a means of mass data
+storage.  Disk drives are slow and unreliable, especially for applications
+where constant 24 hour use is required.  Commodore did make some hard
+drives for the Pet series but none were produced by Commodore for the newer
+'s and 128's.  It was time for some aftermarket designers to fill the void.
+  Several designs came to market, but the one that has stayed popular the
+longest is the Lt. Kernal hard drive system.  A couple of fellows named Roy
+Southwick and Lloyd Sponenburg came up with the initial design of the Lt.
+Kernal.  The story has it that Roy bought his son his first C64 and datasette
+and quickly found that system drudgingly slow for loading and saving programs.
+Even when he upgraded the system to use a 1541 disk drive, Roy was frustrated.
+You all know how you can take a coffee break while some programs load off a 41,
+which didn't impress Roy since he and Lloyd were software/hardware engineers
+on mini-computers at the time.
+  The Lt. Kernal hard drive system for the C64 was introduced in December of
+and it's main customers were businesses who found it could fill their
+needs and was a lot less expensive than PC's at the time.  Since the Lt. Kernal
+is designed to use the 'parallel-oriented expansion bus' instead of the serial
+bus that disk drives use, it's transfer rate is many times faster than 'normal'
+xx serial transfer rates.  For example, in 128 mode a Lt. Kernal drive can
+run up to 65 kilobytes per second.  Eventually, a family run company in Kansas,
+Xetec Inc., provided additional design and manufacturing of the Lt. Kernals
+and they became quite popular to hobbyists running Commodore BBS's.  It was
+an expensive accessory, retailing -then- at over $1000, but then hobbies are
+supposed to cost money, aren't they?
+  Here are some of the facinating features designed into the Lt. Kernal and
+its operating system:
+        - Fourty-two additional or enhanced system commands
+        - Automatic power-up execution of any application program
+        - Up to 7 files can be open for reading or writing simultaneously
+                in addition to the command/error channel
+        - Built in backup & restore software using a speedy "Fastcopy" utility
+        - User can set screen & character colors
+        - CP/M software can be run on the Lt. Kernal system
+        - DOS allows Key File indexing which is not available on disk drives
+        - Can run copy protected software with limitations
+        - Ability to use up to 15 C64's or C128's on one drive simultaneously
+                using the multiplexer which I also build and support
+  Xetec performed a great service to Commodore users by manufacturing several
+peripherals for Commodores: printer adapters and software, plus accessories
+for Atari's and Amigas and even the Macintosh.  But eventually, the market for
+such accessories dwindled and Xetec decided to close it's doors in April of
+.  They had an auction in May of that year to sell off their inventory.
+Prior to the auction, Xetec contacted me since they knew I was in the habit
+of assisting Commodore users with my electronics expertise.  I think Xetec
+genuinely cared for the future of the Lt. Kernal users, and since these
+precious unique parts would be forever lost to Commodore users by ending up
+at surplus electronics dealers, I was contacted.  I emptied out my savings
+account to rescue these parts and even though it was tempting to set up a
+business of Lt. Kernal repair, I knew if Xetec wasn't making a profit at it,
+I wouldn't have much chance either.
+  My work with Lt. Kernals is strictly a hobby.  I charge folks just my costs
+and eventually will be pleased if I break even on my investment in parts.
+Besides, if I made a business out of my hobby, I might just suffer burnout
+and that could ruin my hobby.
+  Word of mouth has provided me with all the work I can handle with the Lt.
+Kernal.  But it is a great pleasure to provide continued support for these
+popular hard drives and I hope I'll have enough spare parts to continue to
+support them for a long time to come.
+  Currently, the CMD hard drive system is the only commercially-available
+Commodore hard drive system and it is better suited for the regular Commodore
+hobbyist since it is more software compatible to your normal Commodore programs
+than the Lt. Kernal system.  Commodore bbs's are the main use nowadays for the
+Lt. Kernal since most Commodore bbs software was written originally with a Lt.
+Kernal in mind.  The Lt. Kernal Multiplexer allows, for example, the Commodore
+sysop to do true multi-tasking with his bbs without tying up the bbs for Sysop
+functions and even provides the capability of running a multi-line bbs on the
+Commodore.  CommNet is the largest network of Commodore bbs's in the world with
+around 50 Commodore boards in the USA and Canada all networked and a good deal
+of those bbs's are running on Lt. Kernal hard drives.  C-Net 128, DS-2 and New
+Image bbs networks are all linked via this network and other Commodore networks
+are encouraged to contact me to join this Commodore information highway.  My
+bbs, the Batcave (303)/252-0735, has been operational for over 7 years and has
+around 700 active members with around 100 of those Commodore 8 bit users and
+guess what, it runs on a 105 meg Lt. Kernal!  :)  With Commodores getting
+cheaper every day at garage sales and support available for these great
+Commodore hard drive systems, there's no need to tie up a Pentium to run a bbs.
+--
+To our knowledge, Mr. Ron Fick is the best and last source of Xetec
+hardware in 1996.  If you have any problems with your Xetec peripherals
+or would like more information on Ron's stock of Xetec products, do not
+hesistate to email him at rfick@nyx.net
+\H05::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+                  >> The Metal Shop ---
+                                *+*
+                           --- with SMS Mike Eglestone <<
+                   SysOp of Diamondback BBS (305)258-5039
+Senior Master Sergeant Mike Eglestone has been a devout C= Hardware guru
+for over ten years and is the Sysop of one of the most active BBS's on the
+Commnet Commodore BBS network.  Mr. Eglestone has written for illustrious
+magazines in the Commodore 8 bit community such as dieHard magazine and the
+very distinguished Commodore World.  We are pleased to have him entertain
+our questions pertaining to hardware concerns.  As always, the editors, the
+staff of disC=overy, and Mr. Eglestone are NOT responsible for the use or
+misuse of any information presented in this article.
+--
+>> Dear SMS Mike,
+>>
+>> How do you run two or more SFD 1001 drives together with only one
+>> interface? I have a Quicksilver 128 hooked up to my SFD and was wondering
+>> how an additional SFD could be added to it?  Could you tell me please?
+>>
+>> GF
+GF,
+ Fairly simple, you daisy chain the drives with the appropriate cables. It
+works just exactly like the serial bus on the standard C= drives, but you do
+the hookup externally (cable to cable).
+ My cables had MALE and FEMALE plugs on the same end. The cables hooked into
+each other at each plug point. Male into drive, Female side out. Next Male
+pluged into the back of that same connection, and so on down the line.
+ If you don't have the cables with the double connectors, you can't make the
+parallel hookup. I don't know where you might find those cables anymore.
+They used to be quite common. I gave all my old ones away about six years ago.
+ You might want to check with Bo Fain at Centsible Systems. He runs across a
+wide variety of things that are not currently available.
+ (318) 687-4613
+--
+>> Dear SMS Mike,
+>>
+>> When I try to load up a program with my 1581, the power light starts to
+>> flicker and then refuses to load.  What is going on here?
+>>
+>> RB
+RB,
+ If the power light only flickers when the drive is turning a disk, it sounds
+more like a loose connection inside the drive.
+ Just open up the case and check the drive power plug inside.
+ It's fairly simple. There are NO dangerous voltages present inside that
+drive. None!! 5 Volts and 12 Volts... That's IT!
+ The drive unit can be seperated from the mother board in a few minutes, but
+you don't even have to do that. Just check the drive plug. Run the drive with
+the top off and LOOK... It ain't no big deal and you can't hurt anything.
+ Just pull the two screws (on the bottom) that hold the top on, Turn it over
+and lift the back of the top, take the top off... The front may fall off too,
+but it just sits there on a couple of pins...
+ Don't be afraid to LOOK inside that drive. It's easy to put back together
+again.. Hell guy, I run two of them with NO tops at all.. Gotta smack one of
+them now and then (to get it turning); it's easy with the top off.
+ The plugs to the drive are obvious. Pull them out and put them back a few
+times.. Might just be dirty connections.
+ However, you may also have a dirty r/w head.  As Mr. Ron Fick pointed out
+to me once, the power light can flicker after a file misread.  The solution
+there would be to clean it lightly with drive-head cleaning solution available
+from drive cleaning kits at Radio Shack and most any computer store vendor.
+--
+>> Dear SMS Mike,
+>>
+>> I have an odd 1581 problem.  My 1581 does not always recognize disk swaps
+>> and sometimes falsely indicates that the write protect is set.  There is a
+>> small microswitch that detects the write enable and presumable the disk
+>> swap as well.  What does your SAMS guide say about this?  It could also
+>> be the circuitry.  What is the part number if the micro switch and is it
+>> generally available?
+>>
+>> RM
+RM,
+ The write protect sensor is nothing more than a optical cell. It is either
+logic high or logic low depending upon the position of the write protect tab
+on the disk. No moving parts involved.
+ I would venture a guess that you have one of the old Newtronics drives in
+that unit. If this is the case, the only way I have ever been able to recover
+from a failed reset is to re-initialize the drive then try to re-inseart the
+disk again. You should HEAR that dust shield slide back out of the way of the
+read write heads, folowed by a very short motor run. That is the indexing
+cycle for track 40. Unlike the other drives, the 1581 uses a fixed track index
+sensor to pre-position the stepper motor. It's a real tricky system to align
+properly.
+ SAMS doesn't list the part numbers or the Manufacture Codes for any of the
+sensors on those old Newtronics Drives. There are three of them involved in
+the alignment process, and they have to be darn near perfect.
+ Not much help here, guy... Those drives are no longer manufactured!
+Note : On one of my old drives, I just removed the write protect sensor and
+soldered the connections closed. It worked again, but you could not write
+protect a disk anymore. Sometimes you have to fudge a bit!
+--
+>> Dear SMS Mike,
+>> I have this old Apple IIE that I would like to infuse with software. I don't
+>> have any telecommunications software or hardware for it though. I do have
+>> a C-64 with modem and 1541 drive. I hear the disk ][ Apple drives and the
+>> 1541 use a similar encoding scheme based on GCR. Is there a way to r/w apple
+>> disks on my C-64 & 1541, especially without hardware modification.
+>>
+>> OP
+OP,
+ Yikes!  Good question but as far as I know, I don't think there is an easy
+"software-only" answer here.  I can think of a few options.  I know that
+there was once an Apple II+ hardware emulator for the C-64.  This 'Spartan'
+unit from Mimic systems allowed R/W to Apple disks, but I am not sure what
+role (if any!) a 1541 played in this arrangement.  That being said, with
+so many C= software/hardware throughout the years, it may be conceivable
+that a disk ][ interface was available for the C-64.  I do not know if such
+an interface exists, but the possibility might be worth investigating.
+ As far as the actual drives are concerned, the following are known as
+problems to be overcome for a potential 1541 - disk ][ reader :
+- The 1541 rotates its disks at fixed speeds while its R/W head frequency
+can be changed in four steps (in series from 250 khz to 300 khz I believe).
+The disk ][ apparently has a variable speed drive engine which allows its
+R/W head to sit at one fixed frequency as it read/writes.  As you can see,
+here we have two opposite paradigms regarding what remains fixed and what
+becomes variable to get the end-result of being able to read/write "GCR".
+Therefore, a 1541 could possibly read/write to a disk ][ format only in
+those areas on the disk where the paradigms cancel each other (i.e., where
+Static Rotation + Variable Freq. = disk ][ Variable Rotation + Static
+Freq.)  The 1541 frequency resolution as mentioned earlier is in 4 steps,
+so it cannot match most of the changes incurred by the disk ]['s variable
+rotation.  My guess is that a hardware modification to the 1541 would have
+to be done.
+- But that's not all, GCR does not equal GCR!  The disk ][ and 1541 use a
+different GCR scheme!  The 1541 uses a 4-5 encoding and the disk ][ uses
+an 8-9 encoding.  On top of this, you then have to rewrite the whole file
+system on the C-64 end to match AppleDOS 3.xx whatever.. Not trivial.
+- As an aside, some Apple sources I checked with tend to suggest that the
+disk ][ runs at a constant 300 RPM.  This is contrary to my admittedly
+limited experience with Apple hardware, but I was given a canonical
+source to reference this point : BENEATH APPLE DOS.  It is supposed to
+be much like the classic tome : INSIDE COMMODORE DOS.  If you or anyone
+else wishes to attempt a 1541 to disk ][ project, these are the books to
+get acquainted with.
+--
+>> Dear SMS Mike,
+>> I hear the SuperCPU 128 will require a daughterboard or clip lead to the
+>> VDC chip.  I don't want to open up my 128.  What gives?
+>>
+>> PO
+PO,
+ I have not heard this, but it would not surprise me.  The VDC is poorly
+interfaced to main memory (for that matter, so is the Z80) in the C128.  I
+can imagine a few reasons why additional hardware links above and beyond
+a simple cartridge plug-in might be required for Super-CPU & VDC operation.
+I won't speculate much on this forum, since I lack proper information about
+the SuperCPU paradigm and the VDC itself.  Although, now that I think about
+it, I am reminded of the VDC article in disC=overy issue 1 (by S. Judd).  I
+believe the goal of that article was to explore enough of the VDC internals
+to "time it out" so to speak.  Now that we have gotten off-topic here :),
+I have never run into a way to make a stable raster on the VDC.  Hmmmm,
+according to my sources, the VDC runs at the 16 Mhz dotclock while everything
+else on an NTSC C128 system runs at 14,318,181/14 Hz (on NTSC).  I can't see
+a stable raster 100% under those conditions.  Anyways, as per your original
+question, we will have to wait until CMD releases the SuperCPU 128 to find
+out -what- is required and -why-.
+--
+>> Dear SMS Mike,
+>>
+>> I bought a VIC-20 at a thrift shop the other day, and OF COURSE, the
+>> thing came with no cabling or power supply.  I managed to hack on a
+>> power supply and had no problems using standard C= serial cables for
+>> drive access, but how do I get a video/audio signal out of it?  By
+>> the way, the VIC-20 will let me blindly type in and load a directory,
+>> so I'm pretty certain it works.
+>>
+>> FN
+FN,
+ Here is the quickest way I know how to do it.  Just remember that this is a
+VIC-20 Video Cable for use with TV/VCR/Monitors with VIDEO IN/AUDIO IN ports.
+Now looking at the back of your VIC-20, you will see the 5 DIN video port,
+as follows :
+                               /--\_/--\
+                              /         \
+                             /  3     1  \
+                            [  .       .  Ü
+                            [    5   4    Ü
+                             \  .  2  .  /
+                              \    .    /
+                               \_______/
+Pin 1 : +5-6 V, max. 10 mAmps (WARNING : DO NOT CONNECT THIS PIN!)
+Pin 2 : Ground
+Pin 3 : Audio Out
+Pin 4 : Video Low (Not Connected)
+Pin 5 : Video High
+You'll need a 5-pin DIN connector, two RCA jacks, and RCA cables.
+ Take the 5-pin DIN connector (remember that the pins will be reversed when
+you view the connector as it faces you) and connect the pins, as follows :
+Pin 3 (Audio Out) to an RCA jack (label this one as audio out)
+Pin 5 (Video Out) to a second RCA jack (label this one as video out)
+Pin 2 (Ground) to the ground sleeve/prong of -both- RCA jacks.
+ Using RCA-style cables, connect these Audio/Video-Out jacks to their respective
+Audio/Video-In counterparts on a VCR or Monitor/TV.  You should now be able to
+watch your VIC-20 in action.  If everything is connected properly, you will
+see the powerup message with a CYAN border and WHITE background (NTSC VIC-20).
+ Your video difficulties should now be resolved.  You also mentioned a problem
+in securing power supplies for the VIC-20.  Although you resolved this issue,
+the traditional steps for those who might not be familiar with the VIC-20 is
+to swing your VIC to where the On/Off switch is located and find the power
+socket next to the switch.  (It will be the socket closer to the big open
+port (for cartridges) at the back of your computer).
+ If you look at your VIC-20's power socket and notice that there are more
+than 2 prongs :) on it, you are in luck.  A regular C-64 power supply will
+work with your VIC-20.
+ If you look at your VIC-20's power socket and it does have two prongs facing
+out, then you have to search!  Find a power supply with at least 9 Volts AC
+delivered at 1 Ampere (with two prongs, each delivering power at 180 degrees
+out of phase from each other) and hook it up.  If this is not an option, you
+can pull 9 Volts AC @ 1 Ampere from a C64 or flat C128 power supply.  For
+example, the online 'zine C= Hacking, issue #6, has an article on building
+power supplies for the C-64.  With two extra wires drawing off the 9 VAC and
+the proper two-prong nylon connector, the power supply described in the article
+becomes an excellent "old-style VIC-20" supply.
+:::::::::::d:i:s:C=:o:v:e:r:y:::::::::::::::::i:s:s:u:e::2::::::::::::::::::::
+$2bad:::::::::::::::::::::::::::E:R:R:A:T:A:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+                      E R R A T A   :   I S S U E  1
+>> /S04 - "A complete dissection of Gfx-Zone"
+>> $d000   by "XmikeX"
+     - In TBB's music player code, "lda #$7f : sta $dc0d" was described as
+       enabling timer interrupts when in reality it disables timer interrupts.
+     - The author may be reached through the Editor-in-Chief of disC=overy.
+>> /S05 - "A Beginner's Guide to the JCH Editor V2.53, NewPlayer V14.G0"
+>> $d400   by Sean M. Pappalardo
+     - SHIFT and SPACE inserts the sustain marker in the blocks (+++),
+       * NOT * SHIFT and RETURN, as written in the article.
+     - The author's internet address was omitted!  Mr. Pappalardo is
+       available for questions and comments at : pegasus@planet.earthcom.net
+>> /S07 - "Some preliminary data on VDC timing"
+>> $d600   by Stephen L. Judd
+     - At least one of the uuencoded files included in the original article
+       was found to be corrupt.  Both have been verified and included below.
+       Note: 'vdc-explorer' is the basic portion, which loads (from drive 8)
+       the ML object file (vdc-explorer.o).
+begin 644 vdc-explorer
+M 1PP' H F2 BFY/6Q,,@Q5A03$]215(@0ED@TU1%4$A%3B#,+B#*541$(CK^
+M"R Q $P<% "+(,(HT2@B,3,P,"(I*;(Q,C @IR T, !C'!X _A$B5D1#+458
+M4$Q/4D52+D\B '$<* !.LC$R,#I#LC  DQPR /XF.D:R,3J7(#4S,C8U+,(H
+M-3,R-C4I(*\@,C,Y *(</ "/($9!4U0Z1CTR -X<1@"&(%0Q*$XI+%0R*$XI
+M+%0S*$XI+%0T*$XI+%0U*$XI+%0V*$XI+%0W*$XI+%0Y*$XI+$%6*#@I #@=
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+end
+begin 644 vdc-explorer.o
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+:_^T%W8W9%%A@                      #6
+end
+>> /S09 - "Software analysis and reconstructive therapy, a historical view
+   $dd00   on 'cracking'"
+           by Pontus Berg
+     - The author's internet address was omitted!  Mr. Berg is available
+       for questions and comments at : PBG@hk.mobitel.telia.se
+--
+Note : None of these errors are present in the 'WordPerfect for Windows
+.2' version of disC=overy, issue 1.
+:::::::::::d:i:s:C=:o:v:e:r:y:::::::::::::::::i:s:s:u:e::2::::::::::::::::::::
+\END::::::::::::::::::::::::::October 1, 1996:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
+</code>